Development of Ball Skills

Original Editor - Romy Hageman

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Introduction

Ball skills involve applying force to an object to propel it. The actions of throwing, kicking, and striking follow similar developmental patterns due to the shared mechanical principles of object projection. Among these, the overhand throw for distance has been the most extensively researched by scientists. Ball skills are important for many games and sports. Movements like throwing and catching are crucial for early childhood, and engaging in such games not only enhances gross motor skills but also supports overall growth and development in children. The ability to throw or catch is strongly linked to the development of movement skills used in sports later in life.

Overarm throwing

Throwing can be done in various ways. Young children often use the two-hand underhand throw and the one-hand underhand throw. Other types include the sidearm throw and the two-hand overarm throw. The choice of throw, especially in children, is often influenced by task constraints, such as the size of the ball. Throwing is crucial as it is a complex motion that will influence the child's future involvement in sports. By the age of 10, most children develop a mature and refined throwing technique.

Characteristics of early overarm throwing:

• Usually restricted to arm action alone.
• Children bring up their hand with their elbow up, and throw by extending the elbow without taking a step.
• Sometimes they wil use trunk flexion, instead of rotation.

Expert overarm throwing movement pattern:

• The weight shifts to the back foot, the torso rotates backward, and the arm performs a circular, downward backswing to prepare for the throw.
• The leg opposite the throwing arm steps forward to extend the distance over which force is applied to the ball and to enable full torso rotation.
• The trunk rotates forward to add force to the throw. For maximal force, the rotation is differentiated, meaning the lower torso moves ahead of the upper torso, creating a movement that resembles the body opening up.
• The trunk bends sideways, away from the side of the throwing arm.
• The upper arm forms a right angle with the torso and moves forward just as (or slightly after) the shoulders rotate to face the front. This means that, when viewed from the side, the upper arm is visible within the outline of the torso.
• The thrower keeps the elbow at a right angle during the forward swing, extending the arm when the shoulders face forward. Extending the arm just before release lengthens the radius of the throwing arc.
• During the forward swing, the forearm lags behind the trunk and upper arm. As the upper trunk rotates forward, the forearm and hand seem stationary or move slightly down or back. The forearm continues to lag until the upper trunk and shoulders fully rotate in the direction of the throw.
• The follow-through disperses the force of the throw over distance. Most of the wrist flexion occurs during the follow-through, after the thrower has released the ball.
• Dissipating force after release maximizes the speed of movement while the ball is in the hand.
  

Developmental sequence for throwing

Trunk action	Backswing and forearm action (backswing)	Humerus action (forward swing)	Forearm action (forward swing)	Foot action
Step 1: No trunk action or forward/backward movements. Only the arm is involved in generating force.	Step 1: No backswing: The ball in the hand moves directly forward from its original position when first grasped, with no backward motion.	step 1: Humerus oblique: The upper arm moves forward to release the ball in a plane that intersects the trunk obliquely, either above or below the horizontal line of the shoulders.	step 1: No forearm lag: The forearm and ball move continuously forward to release throughout the throwing action.	step 1: No step: The child throws from their initial foot position without stepping.
Step 2: Upper trunk rotation: The spine and pelvis rotate away from the intended flight path and then simultaneously start rotating forward, functioning as a single unit.	Step 2: Elbow and humeral flexion: The ball moves away from the intended flight path to a position behind or beside the head through upward flexion of the humerus and simultaneous elbow flexion.	Step 2: Humerus aligned but independent: The upper arm moves forward to release the ball in a plane horizontally aligned with the shoulders.	step 2: Forearm lag: The forearm and ball appear to lag, reaching their farthest back, lowest point, or last stationary position before the shoulders face forward.	step 2: Homolateral step: The child steps with the foot on the same side as the throwing hand.
Step 3: Differentiated rotation: The pelvis initiates forward rotation before the upper spine. The child twists away from the intended ball flight path and then starts forward rotation with the pelvis while the upper spine continues to twist away.	Step 3: Circular, upward backswing: The ball moves away from the intended flight path to a position behind the head via a circular overhead movement with the elbow extended, an oblique swing back, or a vertical lift from the hip.	step 3: Humerus lags: The upper arm moves forward to release the ball in a plane horizontally aligned, but as the shoulders reach a front-facing position, the upper arm remains within the outline of the body.	step 3: Delayed forearm lag: The lagging forearm delays reaching its final lag position until the moment the shoulders face forward.	step 3: Short contralateral step: The child steps with the foot on the opposite side of the throwing hand.
	Step 4: Circular, downward backswing: The ball moves away from the intended flight path to a position behind the head through a circular down-and-back motion, bringing the hand below the waist.

Constraints in overarm throw for accuracy:

• Task constraints:
  • Ball size
  • Target size
  • Ball weight
  • Target shape
  • Child's distance from target
  • Number of trials of the overarm throw
• Environment constraints:
  • Gravity
  • Weather
  • Surface
  • Noise
• Individual constraints:
  • Ethnicity
  • Socio-economic status
  • Gender
  • Height
  • Weight
  • Body type
  • Hand size
  • Prior knowledge of overarm throw

Kicking

For kicking a ball, children must have adequate perceptual abilities and eye-foot coordination to make contact with the ball.

Characteristics of early kicking:

Children just learning to kick a ball will use a single action, rather than a sequence. They will not step forward with the non-kicking leg, the kicking leg only pushes forward. There is no trunk rotation and the arms are at the sides of the body.

Expert kicking pattern:

• The child runs up to the ball. As a natural outcome of the running stride, the trunk rotates backward and the knee of the kicking leg bends just after pushing off from the rear leg. Approaching the ball at a run also contributes momentum to the kick.
• The child uses a sequence of movements with the kicking leg. First, the thigh rotates forward, then the lower leg extends just before contacting the ball to increase the arc radius through which the kicking leg moves. The straightened leg continues forward after contact, dissipating the force of the kick during the follow-through.
• The child swings the kicking leg through its full range of motion at the hip.
• The child incorporates trunk rotation to maximize the range of motion. To balance the full leg swing, the kicker leans back upon contact.
• The child uses the arms in opposition to the legs in response to trunk and leg movements.

Developmental sequences for kicking

Skill	Level 1	Level 2	Level 3	Level 4
Approach	No approach: the child takes no steps.	Linear approach	Angular approach
Support foot location	Stationary: the support foot is behind the bal and stays there.	Reaching: the support foot is one-foot length beyond the ball.	Aligned: the support foot is within one-foot length of the mid-point of the ball.
Knee action	Flexed: the knee is flexed to lift the ankle above the ground to make the kicking motion.	Passive height: when a child makes a step, the ankle stays in a position lower than the knee.	Knee height: during a step or running approach the ankle is lifted above the knee, but below the hip.
Trunk action	No rotation	Total trunk rotation: the trunk rotates away from the intended flight of the ball.	Differentiated rotation: the child rotates the pelvis away from the intended flight of the ball. The pelvis begins forward rotation before the torso moves.
Ball contact	Toe: the toes are the first in contact with the ball.	Instep: the instep, laces or the inside of the foot are first in contact with the ball.
Arm action	bilateral inactive: there is no arm movement.	Bilateral reactive: arms are unsynchronized and are only to keep balance.	Bilateral active: contralateral arm helps in the differentiation of the trunk. Ipsilateral arm is stretched out. It is used for force generation.
Follow-through	Planted: support foot and heel of the child keep on the ground. The kicking leg will return to it's original position.	Heel raise: the heel of the support foot leaves the ground, but the toes keep contact with the ground.	Hop: the support foot leaves contact with the ground, but is also the first foot to be on the ground again.	Leap: the support foot leaves the ground and the kicking foot is the first to be on the ground again.

Overarm striking

Overarm striking is a fundamental motor skill where an individual uses their arm to hit an object, typically with an extended arm moving over the shoulder. It can be carried out with the help of tool, like a racket. This action is common in various sports, such as tennis, volleybal, and baseball.

Characteristics of early overarm striking

A novice striker shows restricted movement in the pelvis and spine, swings with a bent elbow, and moves the arm and racket forward simultaneously. The movement pattern in early overarm striking resembles that of early overarm throwing.

Expert overarm striking patterns:

• The child rotates the pelvis and the spine more than 90°.
• The child keeps its elbow between 90° and 119° at the start of moving forward.
• The child keeps the racket behind its arm during the swing.

Developmental sequence for overarm striking.

Preparatory phase: trunk action	Ball-contact phase: elbow action	Ball-contact phase: spinal range of motion	Ball-contact phase: pelvic range of motion	Ball-contact phase: racket action
Step 1: No trunk action	Step 1: Angle is 20° or less	Step 1: Spine rotates less than 45°	Step 1: Pelvis rotates less than 45°	Step 1: No racket lag
Step 2: Minimal trunk rotation (<180°)	Step 2: Angle is 21° to 89°	Step 2: Spine rotates between 45° and 89°	Step 2: Pelvis rotates between 45° and 89°	Step 2: Racket lag
Step 3: Total trunk rotation (>180°)	Step 3: Angle is 90° to 119°	Step 3: Spine rotates more than 90°	Step 3: Pelvis rotates more than 90°	Step 3: Delayed racket lag

Catching

Catching is a skill where a child intercepts and secures an object, typically with their hands or a tool like a glove. This skill is essential in various sports and activities, such as baseball, basketball, and recreational games. It is complex because of many factors like hand-eye coordination, the ability of tracking and anticipating the ball, and the manipulation of fine motor skills.

Characteristics of early catching

A child learning to catch a ball typically absorbs minimal force. They often hold their hands and arms stiffly and may trap the ball against their chest rather than catching it in their hands. It's common for young children to turn away from the ball or close their eyes as they anticipate its arrival.

Expert catching patterns:

• The child learns to catch the ball with their hands and allows for gradual absorption of the ball's force.
• The child masters the ability to move left, right, forward, or backward to intercept the ball.
• When catching a high ball, the child points the fingers upward; when catching a low ball, the child points the fingers downward.

Developmental sequence for two-hand catching

Arm action	Hand action	Body action
Step 1: Almost no response. Arms are extended forward. The ball is usually trapped against the child's chest.	Step 1: Palms up: the palms of the hand of the child are facing up.	Step 1: No adjustments.
Step 2: Hugging: the arms of the child are extended sideways to hug the ball. They still trap the ball against their chest.	Step 2: Palms in: the palms of the child are facing each other.	Step 2: Akward adjustment: the arms and trunk are beginning to move, but the head of the child remains erect.
Step 3: Scooping: the arms of the child are extended forward, but they move under the ball. The ball is still trapped against their chest.	Step 3: Palms adjusted: the palms of the child are adjusted to the size of the ball they want to catch.	Step 3: Proper adjustment: the feet, trunk, and arms of the child all move to catch the ball.
Step 4: Arms give: the arms extend to meet the ball. The ball is caught in their hands.

Constraints in catching:

• Child specific constraints:
  • Gender: mean percentage of succesfull catches is greater for boys than for girls.
  • Stereo vision: this is one of many possible information sources for accurately perceiving objects in depth, and it becomes increasingly important as an object enters one's immediate action space. A lack of stereo vision is closely linked to reduced performance in unimanual catching. Since stereo vision aids in depth perception, it can provide the catcher with crucial temporal and spatial information.
  • Age: catching performance improves with age.
  • Experience: children who have experience in participating in sports are more likely to be more proficient in catching.
  • Motivation: if children are enthusiastic about participating, they will achieve their goals easier.
  • Learning disorder.
• Task constraints:
  • Ball location: for children (5-6 years), a ball directed at the torso brings out more advanced developmental patterns. If a ball is tossed too far away from or too close to a child's body, they will be frequently more unsuccesful.
  • Ball velocity: ball speed also plays a role.
  • Distance: succesful catching seems to be related to distances.
• Environmental constraints:
  • Posture: good catchers do not show any improvements in catching while sitting or standing, but children less proficient catch more balls when in a seated position.
  • Instruction: the instruction given to children on how to catch is important and must be fitting for the child (internal vs. external focus, explicit vs. implicit learning).
  • Ball size: larger balls can improve the catching patterns in young children.
  • Ball color: children are more succesful at catching balls of their preferred colour compared to balls of other colours.

Gender differences

Boys tend to outperform girls on object-control skills. These differences could be examined from a biological perspective, even though boys and girls generally share similar physical attributes such as body type, strength, and limb lengths before puberty. It is likely that sex differences are influenced by the types of activities children engage in. Research has indicated that the activities boys and girls participate in are heavily shaped by social and environmental factors, including the influence of family, peers, teachers, and the physical environment. Boys are more likely to participate in ball sports (object-control related activities), while girls tend to be more involved in dance and gymnastics (locomotor-related activities).

At the age of 5 years 3 months old, 60% of boys have developed a mature one-handed overarm throwing technique. In contrast, girls did not achieve this milestone until they are 8 years and 6 months old.

Ball skills for the pediatric physical therapist

These skills do no develop on their own; they need to be taught and developed through structured instruction, enough practice opportunities, and constructive feedback. When practicing ball skills with a child the following things are important:

• Catching skills can improve the hand-eye coordination skills in children with cerebral palsy (dyskinesia type).
• Children with learning disabilities can benefit from participation in a ball skill intervention. Improvements in ball skills leads to improvement in the problem solving skill of children.
• Overhand throwing training can reduce the variability and increase the accuracy of overhand throwing in children with Down syndrome. The throwing movement is more stable and the children use a more coordinated movement pattern.
• Consider incorporating games into the therapy.
• Emphasizing speed over accuracy in children's motor learning might promote greater development of ballistic skills.
• High motor ability students might benefit more from engaging, play-based activities, whereas lower motor ability students might require structured, repetitive practice to develop their skills.
• Hand-eye coordination is an essential skill for performing daily activities and sports actions, such as catching and throwing a ball. Improving this coordination can have a direct impact on children's ball skills.
• Teaching proper throwing techniques may offer greater advantages than relying solely on natural development and general practice. Feedback and cues on foot position, backswing, and release position give better results.
• Improving the throwing sequence and enhancing grip strength and aerobic capacity are important for improving a child´s ability to throw.
• In early childhood, proficiency in object control skills is linked to verbal working memory capacity. Nonetheless, it seems that young children generally acquire object control skills independently of their verbal cognitive abilities.

Overhand throwing cues for accuracy:

1. Reach your arm back
2. Step with the opposite foot
3. Throw as hard as you can

Adjustments:

• Start with static exercises. Either the child or the ball is static. If a child is able to do that, you move on to activities where the child and ball are in motion.
• Use variation in the items you use during therapy. Other items to practice ball skills with are: balloons, scarves, bean bags, beach ball, pillows, plush toys, frisbees, rings, foam blocks, mini balls, yarn balls, tennis balls, slo-mo balls.
• Start with bigger items, and work towards smaller balls.
• When aiming, use bigger targets first and work towards smaller goals. You could also use the distance to make things easier / harder. Standing further away is more difficult than standing closeby.
• Start with slow movements of the ball, then increase the speed.

Activity ideas:

• Roll Objects into a Target - start with a wide target area and gradually reduce it to a smaller one, like a box. Encourage the child to see how many points they can accumulate in one minute.
  • Skills developed: hand-eye coordination, aiming.
• Obstacle course - set up an obstacle course using cones, pillows, or other objects. Place a target at the end of the course. The child must roll or dribble (with hands or feet) through the obstacles and aim to hit the target at the end.
  • Skills developed: coordination, agility, spatial awareness, dribbling, aiming.
• Bean bag toss - place something to throw the beanbags in at varying distances. Assign points based on its difficulty. Give the child bean bags to throw.
  • Skills developed: precision, aiming, strategic planning.
• Balloon keep up - Inflate a balloon. The child must keep the balloon in the air for as long as possible using only their hand or feet. Count the number of hits without letting de balloon touch the ground.
  • Skills developed: hand-eye coordination, timing, reaction speed.
• Target practice with soft toys - set up a line of stuffed animals at varying distances. The child throws a ball or bean bag to knock down the toys.
  • Skills developed: aiming, strength control, concentration.
• Ball bounce counting - use a soft ball and a flat surface. The child must bounce the ball in the floor and counts the number of bounces without losing control of the ball.
  • Skills developed: hand-eye coordination, rhythm, dribbling, concentration.
• Catching from a wall - the child stands at a distance from the wall. The child throws the ball at the wall and then tries to catch it, without letting it touch de ground.
  • Skills developed: hand-eye coordination, strength control, aiming, catching, concentration.
• Color matching toss - place colored targets (hoops, containers, mats) around the room. Have balls or bean bags in matching colours. The child must throw or roll the balls in the corresponding target.
  • Skills developed: color recognition, aiming, coordination, strength control.
• Throw and catch - the child throws a bean bag up (aim to eye level) and tries to catch it with both hands. If it is easy, then the child can try to do it with one hand.
  • Skills developed: catching, eye-hand coordination, concentration, strength control.

Measurements for ball skills

It is difficult to measure catching, due to the many variables influencing the catching performance. Measurements for catching and throwing:

• Throw-catch assessment: children must throw a tennis ball against a wall. The distance to the wall is three times their height. They must catch the ball as many times as possible in 30 seconds.
• Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC)
• Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD): object control subtest: performance on six ball skills: throwing, catching, striking off a tee, kicking, dribbling, and rolling.
• Peabody Developmental Motor Scales: the receipt and propulsion category: throw/catching a tennis ball, bouncing games, throwing to a target game, kicking the ball.
• Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency second edition (BOT-2): subtest upper-limb coordination.
• Fitness Test Battery (FTB): the tennis ball throw
• Performance and Fitness test (PERF-FIT): the ball skills and overhead throw
• FUS test: the items ball bouncing, throwing and catching, and kicking and stopping a ball.
• Bilateral tests for the assessment of manipulative skills in children: for children 7 years old: standing ball throwing, bouncing the ball standing and dribbling the ball with the foot.