The Road to Writing and Moving in Early and Middle Childhood: Difference between revisions
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< | ==Introduction== | ||
[[The Postural Control System|Postural control]] begins in the brain and ends in the hand or foot. Typically, by the age of seven, a child's postural control should be consolidated and automatic and they should be “writing ready” and “sport ready”.<ref name=":0">Prowse T. The Social, Cognitive and Emotional Development of Children - The Road to Writing and Moving Course. Plus , 2021.</ref> However, some children may not develop this postural control for a number of reasons:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* They may be too floppy or bendy - i.e. they have low connective tissue tone with underlying weaknesses, even if they are sporty. This may be caused by conditions such as: | |||
**[[Benign Joint Hypermobility Syndrome]] | |||
** [[Marfan Syndrome]] | |||
** [[Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome|Ehlers–Danlos Syndrome]] (EDS) | |||
* Lack of practice, which leads to muscle weakness | |||
* An inability to concentrate on a specific activity | |||
* Temperament | |||
** Too shy | |||
** Too nervous | |||
** Gives up easily | |||
* Learning difficulties | |||
== Learning Through Play == | |||
[[File:Learning Through Play Diagram.png|thumb|Figure 1. Learning through Play]] | |||
As is shown in Figure 1, children typically experience by “doing” things. The more “doing”, the more learning. The more “doing”, the stronger their muscles get. Strong muscles and exercise are good for writing, reading, concentrating and exercising. Exercise also has a positive impact on happiness, health and friendships.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> | |||
== The Building Blocks of Learning == | |||
Children develop motor competence in their early years (i.e. up until 5 years old). These fundamental motor skills (FMS) enable children to eventually develop specialised movement and sport skills.<ref>Barnett L, Hnatiuk J, Salmon J, Hesketh K. Modifiable factors which predict children’s gross motor competence: a prospective cohort study. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2019;16(1):129.</ref> Developing FMS is associated with physical activity levels during both childhood and adulthood.<ref>Collins H, Booth JN, Duncan A, Fawkner S. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6525228/ The effect of resistance training interventions on fundamental movement skills in youth: a meta-analysis]. ''Sports Med Open''. 2019;5(1):17. </ref> | |||
Based on research by Ayres<ref>Ayres AJ. Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden sensory challenges. United States: Western Psychological Services, 2005.</ref> and Stock Kranowitz,<ref>Stock Kranowitz C. Out of Sync Child. Available from: https://out-of-sync-child.com (accessed 4 August 2021).</ref> early learning can be broken down into four levels (Table 1):<ref name=":0" /> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Table 1. Four levels of early learning. | |||
!Level | |||
!System / Skill | |||
!Age | |||
!Action | |||
|- | |||
|Level One | |||
|Primary Sensory Systems | |||
|Infant, 0 to 3 months, but starts in the womb | |||
|Taking in sound, taste, vision, touch and smell | |||
|- | |||
|Level Two | |||
|Sensory Motor Skills | |||
|Baby to toddler, 3 to 24 months | |||
|Developing independent movement | |||
Gaining body awareness and motor planning | |||
|- | |||
|Level Three | |||
|Perceptual Motor Skills | |||
|2 to 4 years | |||
|Speech and language | |||
Auditory and visual discrimination | |||
Eye-hand coordination | |||
Purposeful activity | |||
|- | |||
|Level Four | |||
|Academic and Sport Readiness | |||
|5 to 7 years | |||
|Specialisation and automation | |||
Organised behaviour | |||
Postural control | |||
Self-esteem and self-control | |||
|} | |||
== What if Children Are Not Ready for Learning and Sports? == | |||
Some children may not be ready as early as others for sports or academic learning. These children may have the following characteristics:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
== | * Poor concentration | ||
* Fidgeting | |||
* Inactivity/withdrawing from playground activity/sport | |||
* Poor pencil grip | |||
* Low academic confidence | |||
* Physical and muscular coping strategies: | |||
** The strong child | |||
** The floppy child | |||
* Pain | |||
<br> | |||
Ensuring that children engage in the cycle of doing, learning and practising can, however, help them to achieve writing and sport readiness:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* Encourage playful learning | |||
* Be prepared for more teaching and more practice to help a child master a skill | |||
* Instill “grit” through understanding | |||
{{#ev:youtube|hiiEeMN7vbQ}}<ref>Stanford Alumni. Developing a Growth Mindset with Carol Dweck. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiiEeMN7vbQ [last accessed 4/8/2021]</ref> | |||
=== Practical Solutions === | |||
* [[File:Sit right write right.png|thumb|450x450px|Figure 2. Sit right then write.]]Sitting should be comfortable | |||
** Foot support (i.e. footstool, height-adjustable chair) | |||
** If the child is sitting on the floor, consider the sitting position. Look at alignment, midline orientation, focus of attention, static propping versus weight collapsing | |||
* Allow Lots of Movement | |||
** Do not have children aged 6 to 7 years sitting still for more than 15 to 20 minutes (i.e. in Grades / Years 1 and 2) | |||
*** The time spent sitting can be increased over time | |||
** Provide Movement Breaks: | |||
*** Send the child out on errands | |||
*** Try programmes such as [https://www.wfc.org/website/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=50&Itemid=174&lang=en Straighten Up UK] (see video below) | |||
**Movement plays an important part in sitting: “a school in which movement is supported and encouraged has a positive effect on the learning ability and attentiveness of the children” (Dr Dieter Breitheckerxi)<ref name=":1">FIRA. [https://www.fira.co.uk/images/safe-seats-of-learning.pdf Safe seats of learning]. Hertfordshire: FIRA International Ltd. 2008</ref> | |||
* Practise Sitting | |||
** Build up to 20 minutes | |||
**Sit right then write (see Figure 2) | |||
{{#ev:youtube|Jioiv5AJtk4}}<ref>Publicasity. Straighten Up UK!. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jioiv5AJtk4 [last accessed 4/8/2021]</ref> | |||
== Sitting in the Classroom and at Home == | |||
If a child is not coping, it can be useful to consider how this child sits and breathes while writing. If a child is hunched over a desk, head in arms, it can lead to: | |||
* Comments such as: | |||
** “I don’t want to do my homework” | |||
** “It’s boring” | |||
** “I'm tired” | |||
* Fidgeting | |||
* Slumping | |||
* Twisting | |||
* Poor attention to a task | |||
<br> | |||
Possible solutions to these issues include: | |||
* Adjusting the height of the chair | |||
** It is possible to purchase height-adjustable chairs or alternatively to use common household items to make adjustments, such as hot water bottles, cushions, books etc | |||
* Raising the work surface or using an inclined sloping surface | |||
** Feet should be placed flat on floor | |||
** Avoid hooking feet around chairs | |||
* Consider furniture size (e.g. desk and chair height)<ref name=":1" /> | |||
** When selecting furniture in schools, the age and height of the child are often not considered, so the furniture is often too big or too small | |||
** This can lead to discomfort and restlessness and, thus, affect learning | |||
** It is possible to use wedge cushions or footstools to address these issues<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* Writing slopes | |||
** Enable children to keep their hand under the line of writing | |||
* The position and height of the desk need to work for the child. Consider in particular the set up for:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
** Left-handed children | |||
*** Paper should be positioned to the left of the child's midline | |||
*** Sitting to the left hand side of other children at their desk | |||
** Tall children | |||
** Short children | |||
** It can be beneficial to invest in a “homework chair” - examples include the: Sit Right, Enzi, Stokke and Ergochair | |||
=== Sitting for Pre-Schoolers === | |||
For preschoolers, it is important to avoid W-sitting. Instead, aim for alignment with wedges and cushions and encourage positions such as:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* Kneeling | |||
* All fours | |||
* Playing in high kneeling | |||
<br> | |||
Children should also be encouraged to eat with good alignment - i.e. feet supported and a stable base.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
== Practical Solutions == | |||
See Table 2 for practical solutions to help children become reading and writing ready, to develop good writing skills and to help them to "do". | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Table 2. Ideas to help children with writing, reading and "doing". | |||
!Good Writing Skills | |||
|Cross the midline | |||
Painting | |||
Chalk | |||
Use an upright surface | |||
Stick page down | |||
Use thicker crayons | |||
|- | |||
!Reading and Witing Ready | |||
| Sand/mud play | |||
Spaghetti/string plan | |||
Playdough | |||
Shaving foam | |||
Blackboards | |||
Cut out cardboard letters | |||
Draw lying on back | |||
|- | |||
!Encourage Doing | |||
|Find activities that a child can “excel” at and not be the odd one out (children should be grouped according to ability, not age) | |||
Facilitate independence in activities of daily living (doing up buttons, dressing, getting changed for PE, getting school bag ready) | |||
Break down activities into steps and have a 3 step plan for each activity | |||
Give a child extra time (i.e. wake up early) | |||
Provide choice (e.g. let children choose their own school bag) | |||
Encourage children to exercise | |||
Make time for attention (both the parent's and the child's) | |||
|} | |||
== Physical Activity == | |||
Guidelines for physical activity are discussed in more detail [[The Social, Cognitive and Emotional Development of Children - Assessment and Treatment|here]], but it is recommended that:<ref name=":2">World Health Organisation. Physical activity. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity (accessed 2 August 2021).</ref><ref>Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S'','' Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G et al. [https://bjsm.bmj.com/content/54/24/1451 World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour]. ''British Journal of Sports Medicine'' 2020;54:1451-62.</ref> | |||
* School-aged children have 60 minutes of physical activity per day | |||
* Preschoolers should have 120 minutes | |||
<br> | |||
Recommended Screen Time Guidelines:<ref name=":2" /> | |||
* No screen time access for children under the age of 2 years | |||
* 1 to 2 hours of educational screen time for children aged 2 to 5 years | |||
* A maximum of 2 hours screen time for children aged over 6 years | |||
=== The Importance of Promoting Movement === | |||
While questions remain about how physical activity can best be incorporated in schools,<ref>Donnelly JE, Hillman CH, Castelli D, Etnier JL, Lee S, Tomporowski P et al. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4874515/ Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: a systematic review]. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(6):1197-222. </ref> it is important to promote movement in children for the following reasons:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* To increase muscle strength, which reduces fidgeting<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* To relieve tight muscles, which results in fewer aches and pains<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* To enhance motor skills and muscle fitness<ref>Myer GD, Faigenbaum AD, Edwards NM'','' Clark JF, Best TM, Sallis RE. Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach ''British Journal of Sports Medicine.'' 2015;49''':'''1510-1516.</ref> | |||
* Fitness may improve reading and maths scores<ref name=":3">Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance. Available from: <nowiki>https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201501/</nowiki></ref> | |||
* Movement and standing in the classroom promote concentration/focus and enhance health outcomes<ref>Benden ME, Zhao H, Jeffrey CE, Wendel ML, Blake JJ. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4199024/ The evaluation of the impact of a stand-biased desk on energy expenditure and physical activity for elementary school students]. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(9):9361-75.</ref><ref>Hinckson E, Salmon J, Benden M, Clemes SA, Sudholz B, Barber SE et al. Standing classrooms: research and lessons learned from around the world. ''Sports Med''. 2016;46, 977–87.</ref> | |||
* To enhance executive control processes and other cognitive tasks/performance <ref>Sibley B, Etnier J. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235913924_The_Relationship_between_Physical_Activity_and_Cognition_in_Children_A_Meta-Analysis The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis]. Pediatric Exercise Science. 2003;15(3):243-56.</ref><ref>Tomporowski PD, Davis CL, Miller PH, Naglieri JA. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2748863/ Exercise and children's intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement]. ''Educ Psychol Rev''. 2008;20(2):111-31. </ref> | |||
<br> | |||
NB: Increased Physical Education (PE) during school time (and the associated decrease in academic time) does not cause a decline in academic performance<ref>Ahamed Y, Macdonald H, Reed K, Naylor PJ, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/6526393_School-Based_Physical_Activity_Does_Not_Compromise_Children%27s_Academic_Performance School-based physical activity does not compromise children's academic performance]. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):371-6. </ref> | |||
Practical activities to encourage movement are listed in Table 3.<ref name=":0" /> | |||
{| class="wikitable" | |||
|+Table 3. Activities to encourage movement in children. | |||
|Leg balance | |||
|Running | |||
|Stretches, active mobilisation, yoga | |||
|Teach the child to ride a bike | |||
|- | |||
|Jumping | |||
|Hiking | |||
|Sensory activities | |||
|Teach the child to do handstands/cartwheels | |||
|- | |||
|Hopping | |||
|Walking | |||
|Ball exercises (skills and core work) | |||
|Talk about posture | |||
|- | |||
|Hopscotch | |||
|Leg strengthening | |||
|Teach the child to skip | |||
|Introduce healthy eating habits | |||
|} | |||
== The “I Can” Attitude == | |||
A child needs a sense of self-efficacy and agency to engage in challenging tasks. Agency is defined as: “being able to make choices and decisions to influence events and have an impact on one’s world.”<ref>Australian Children's Education and Care Quality Authority. National quality standard: Information sheet. 2018. Available from: https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2018-04/QA1_SupportingAgencyInvolvingChildreninDecisionMaking.pdf (accessed 5 August 2021).</ref> | |||
It can be beneficial to set SMART goals for the child to enhance a child’s intrinsic motivation.<ref name=":0" /> The following strategies can be useful for parents to further encourage intrinsic motivation:<ref name=":0" /> | |||
* Choose praise, reward effort and be specific with praise | |||
* Acknowledge/validate and explain discomfort: | |||
** “I can see you find sitting still very hard” | |||
** “The burning feeling in your legs is a sign that your muscles are getting stronger” | |||
** “Being out of breath means that your heart is working very hard and you are getting fitter” | |||
** “I can see that this is tricky for you” | |||
* Support children to manage themselves independently | |||
== References == | |||
<references /> | |||
[[Category:Course Pages]] | |||
[[Category:Paediatrics]] | |||
[[Category:ReLAB-HS Course Page]] | |||
[[Category:Rehabilitation]] |
Latest revision as of 18:34, 26 August 2022
Top Contributors - Jess Bell, Naomi O'Reilly, Kim Jackson, Tarina van der Stockt, Wanda van Niekerk and Cindy John-Chu
Introduction[edit | edit source]
Postural control begins in the brain and ends in the hand or foot. Typically, by the age of seven, a child's postural control should be consolidated and automatic and they should be “writing ready” and “sport ready”.[1] However, some children may not develop this postural control for a number of reasons:[1]
- They may be too floppy or bendy - i.e. they have low connective tissue tone with underlying weaknesses, even if they are sporty. This may be caused by conditions such as:
- Lack of practice, which leads to muscle weakness
- An inability to concentrate on a specific activity
- Temperament
- Too shy
- Too nervous
- Gives up easily
- Learning difficulties
Learning Through Play[edit | edit source]
As is shown in Figure 1, children typically experience by “doing” things. The more “doing”, the more learning. The more “doing”, the stronger their muscles get. Strong muscles and exercise are good for writing, reading, concentrating and exercising. Exercise also has a positive impact on happiness, health and friendships.[1][2]
The Building Blocks of Learning[edit | edit source]
Children develop motor competence in their early years (i.e. up until 5 years old). These fundamental motor skills (FMS) enable children to eventually develop specialised movement and sport skills.[3] Developing FMS is associated with physical activity levels during both childhood and adulthood.[4]
Based on research by Ayres[5] and Stock Kranowitz,[6] early learning can be broken down into four levels (Table 1):[1]
Level | System / Skill | Age | Action |
---|---|---|---|
Level One | Primary Sensory Systems | Infant, 0 to 3 months, but starts in the womb | Taking in sound, taste, vision, touch and smell |
Level Two | Sensory Motor Skills | Baby to toddler, 3 to 24 months | Developing independent movement
Gaining body awareness and motor planning |
Level Three | Perceptual Motor Skills | 2 to 4 years | Speech and language
Auditory and visual discrimination Eye-hand coordination Purposeful activity |
Level Four | Academic and Sport Readiness | 5 to 7 years | Specialisation and automation
Organised behaviour Postural control Self-esteem and self-control |
What if Children Are Not Ready for Learning and Sports?[edit | edit source]
Some children may not be ready as early as others for sports or academic learning. These children may have the following characteristics:[1]
- Poor concentration
- Fidgeting
- Inactivity/withdrawing from playground activity/sport
- Poor pencil grip
- Low academic confidence
- Physical and muscular coping strategies:
- The strong child
- The floppy child
- Pain
Ensuring that children engage in the cycle of doing, learning and practising can, however, help them to achieve writing and sport readiness:[1]
- Encourage playful learning
- Be prepared for more teaching and more practice to help a child master a skill
- Instill “grit” through understanding
Practical Solutions[edit | edit source]
- Sitting should be comfortable
- Foot support (i.e. footstool, height-adjustable chair)
- If the child is sitting on the floor, consider the sitting position. Look at alignment, midline orientation, focus of attention, static propping versus weight collapsing
- Allow Lots of Movement
- Do not have children aged 6 to 7 years sitting still for more than 15 to 20 minutes (i.e. in Grades / Years 1 and 2)
- The time spent sitting can be increased over time
- Provide Movement Breaks:
- Send the child out on errands
- Try programmes such as Straighten Up UK (see video below)
- Movement plays an important part in sitting: “a school in which movement is supported and encouraged has a positive effect on the learning ability and attentiveness of the children” (Dr Dieter Breitheckerxi)[8]
- Do not have children aged 6 to 7 years sitting still for more than 15 to 20 minutes (i.e. in Grades / Years 1 and 2)
- Practise Sitting
- Build up to 20 minutes
- Sit right then write (see Figure 2)
Sitting in the Classroom and at Home[edit | edit source]
If a child is not coping, it can be useful to consider how this child sits and breathes while writing. If a child is hunched over a desk, head in arms, it can lead to:
- Comments such as:
- “I don’t want to do my homework”
- “It’s boring”
- “I'm tired”
- Fidgeting
- Slumping
- Twisting
- Poor attention to a task
Possible solutions to these issues include:
- Adjusting the height of the chair
- It is possible to purchase height-adjustable chairs or alternatively to use common household items to make adjustments, such as hot water bottles, cushions, books etc
- Raising the work surface or using an inclined sloping surface
- Feet should be placed flat on floor
- Avoid hooking feet around chairs
- Consider furniture size (e.g. desk and chair height)[8]
- When selecting furniture in schools, the age and height of the child are often not considered, so the furniture is often too big or too small
- This can lead to discomfort and restlessness and, thus, affect learning
- It is possible to use wedge cushions or footstools to address these issues[1]
- Writing slopes
- Enable children to keep their hand under the line of writing
- The position and height of the desk need to work for the child. Consider in particular the set up for:[1]
- Left-handed children
- Paper should be positioned to the left of the child's midline
- Sitting to the left hand side of other children at their desk
- Tall children
- Short children
- It can be beneficial to invest in a “homework chair” - examples include the: Sit Right, Enzi, Stokke and Ergochair
- Left-handed children
Sitting for Pre-Schoolers[edit | edit source]
For preschoolers, it is important to avoid W-sitting. Instead, aim for alignment with wedges and cushions and encourage positions such as:[1]
- Kneeling
- All fours
- Playing in high kneeling
Children should also be encouraged to eat with good alignment - i.e. feet supported and a stable base.[1]
Practical Solutions[edit | edit source]
See Table 2 for practical solutions to help children become reading and writing ready, to develop good writing skills and to help them to "do".
Good Writing Skills | Cross the midline
Painting Chalk Use an upright surface Stick page down Use thicker crayons |
---|---|
Reading and Witing Ready | Sand/mud play
Spaghetti/string plan Playdough Shaving foam Blackboards Cut out cardboard letters Draw lying on back |
Encourage Doing | Find activities that a child can “excel” at and not be the odd one out (children should be grouped according to ability, not age)
Facilitate independence in activities of daily living (doing up buttons, dressing, getting changed for PE, getting school bag ready) Break down activities into steps and have a 3 step plan for each activity Give a child extra time (i.e. wake up early) Provide choice (e.g. let children choose their own school bag) Encourage children to exercise Make time for attention (both the parent's and the child's) |
Physical Activity[edit | edit source]
Guidelines for physical activity are discussed in more detail here, but it is recommended that:[10][11]
- School-aged children have 60 minutes of physical activity per day
- Preschoolers should have 120 minutes
Recommended Screen Time Guidelines:[10]
- No screen time access for children under the age of 2 years
- 1 to 2 hours of educational screen time for children aged 2 to 5 years
- A maximum of 2 hours screen time for children aged over 6 years
The Importance of Promoting Movement[edit | edit source]
While questions remain about how physical activity can best be incorporated in schools,[12] it is important to promote movement in children for the following reasons:[1]
- To increase muscle strength, which reduces fidgeting[1]
- To relieve tight muscles, which results in fewer aches and pains[1]
- To enhance motor skills and muscle fitness[13]
- Fitness may improve reading and maths scores[2]
- Movement and standing in the classroom promote concentration/focus and enhance health outcomes[14][15]
- To enhance executive control processes and other cognitive tasks/performance [16][17]
NB: Increased Physical Education (PE) during school time (and the associated decrease in academic time) does not cause a decline in academic performance[18]
Practical activities to encourage movement are listed in Table 3.[1]
Leg balance | Running | Stretches, active mobilisation, yoga | Teach the child to ride a bike |
Jumping | Hiking | Sensory activities | Teach the child to do handstands/cartwheels |
Hopping | Walking | Ball exercises (skills and core work) | Talk about posture |
Hopscotch | Leg strengthening | Teach the child to skip | Introduce healthy eating habits |
The “I Can” Attitude[edit | edit source]
A child needs a sense of self-efficacy and agency to engage in challenging tasks. Agency is defined as: “being able to make choices and decisions to influence events and have an impact on one’s world.”[19]
It can be beneficial to set SMART goals for the child to enhance a child’s intrinsic motivation.[1] The following strategies can be useful for parents to further encourage intrinsic motivation:[1]
- Choose praise, reward effort and be specific with praise
- Acknowledge/validate and explain discomfort:
- “I can see you find sitting still very hard”
- “The burning feeling in your legs is a sign that your muscles are getting stronger”
- “Being out of breath means that your heart is working very hard and you are getting fitter”
- “I can see that this is tricky for you”
- Support children to manage themselves independently
References[edit | edit source]
- ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 Prowse T. The Social, Cognitive and Emotional Development of Children - The Road to Writing and Moving Course. Plus , 2021.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK201501/
- ↑ Barnett L, Hnatiuk J, Salmon J, Hesketh K. Modifiable factors which predict children’s gross motor competence: a prospective cohort study. The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2019;16(1):129.
- ↑ Collins H, Booth JN, Duncan A, Fawkner S. The effect of resistance training interventions on fundamental movement skills in youth: a meta-analysis. Sports Med Open. 2019;5(1):17.
- ↑ Ayres AJ. Sensory integration and the child: Understanding hidden sensory challenges. United States: Western Psychological Services, 2005.
- ↑ Stock Kranowitz C. Out of Sync Child. Available from: https://out-of-sync-child.com (accessed 4 August 2021).
- ↑ Stanford Alumni. Developing a Growth Mindset with Carol Dweck. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hiiEeMN7vbQ [last accessed 4/8/2021]
- ↑ 8.0 8.1 FIRA. Safe seats of learning. Hertfordshire: FIRA International Ltd. 2008
- ↑ Publicasity. Straighten Up UK!. Available from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jioiv5AJtk4 [last accessed 4/8/2021]
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 World Health Organisation. Physical activity. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity (accessed 2 August 2021).
- ↑ Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2020;54:1451-62.
- ↑ Donnelly JE, Hillman CH, Castelli D, Etnier JL, Lee S, Tomporowski P et al. Physical activity, fitness, cognitive function, and academic achievement in children: a systematic review. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2016;48(6):1197-222.
- ↑ Myer GD, Faigenbaum AD, Edwards NM, Clark JF, Best TM, Sallis RE. Sixty minutes of what? A developing brain perspective for activating children with an integrative exercise approach British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2015;49:1510-1516.
- ↑ Benden ME, Zhao H, Jeffrey CE, Wendel ML, Blake JJ. The evaluation of the impact of a stand-biased desk on energy expenditure and physical activity for elementary school students. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(9):9361-75.
- ↑ Hinckson E, Salmon J, Benden M, Clemes SA, Sudholz B, Barber SE et al. Standing classrooms: research and lessons learned from around the world. Sports Med. 2016;46, 977–87.
- ↑ Sibley B, Etnier J. The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: a meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science. 2003;15(3):243-56.
- ↑ Tomporowski PD, Davis CL, Miller PH, Naglieri JA. Exercise and children's intelligence, cognition, and academic achievement. Educ Psychol Rev. 2008;20(2):111-31.
- ↑ Ahamed Y, Macdonald H, Reed K, Naylor PJ, Liu-Ambrose T, McKay H. School-based physical activity does not compromise children's academic performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):371-6.
- ↑ Australian Children's Education and Care Quality Authority. National quality standard: Information sheet. 2018. Available from: https://www.acecqa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2018-04/QA1_SupportingAgencyInvolvingChildreninDecisionMaking.pdf (accessed 5 August 2021).