Case Study: Traumatic Brain Injury in an Elderly Woman

Original Editor - User Name Top Contributors - Emily Villeneuve, Emily Hogan, Tianzi Zhao, Kim Jackson, Shaimaa Eldib, Lucinda hampton and Aminat Abolade

Abstract

The purpose of this entry is to create a fictional case study that explores the common presentation of a traumatic brain injury (TBI) in an elderly individual and discuss possible interventions for restoring physical and cognitive function during an in-patient rehabilitation program. The following fictional case study presents a 65-year of woman recovering in an in-patient rehabilitation unit following surgical intervention due to a TBI (TBI). She entered the in-patient rehabilitation program two weeks after a craniotomy, with stable vitals. The initial examination findings included impaired memory, balance issues, limited ambulation and increased tone in the left upper and lower extremities. Physiotherapy interventions consisted of balance training, task-specific exercises, strength training, flexibility exercises, gait training and postural education. Outcomes....(TIANZI).

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Introduction

Traumatic brain injury is a major health condition, and one of the common causes is falls . More specifically, subdural hematomas have been identified as one of the most prevalent injuries in patients who presented to the emergency department due to a traumatic brain injury. Few studies have looked at the role of rehabilitation and its effects on the improvement of functional outcomes in patients who have undergone surgery for subdural hematomas. The purpose of this fictional case study is to explore the rehabilitation of an elderly woman with an acute traumatic brain injury, post-surgical intervention.

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Client Characteristics

A 65-year-old woman was getting groceries with her friend when she slipped on ice, hit her head and lost consciousness. An ambulance was called, and she was rushed to the hospital. The patient lost consciousness for one hour and remained in an altered state of consciousness for 24 hours. Diagnostic imaging confirmed right sided focal subdural hematoma. Her Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) score upon arrival was 9 (E5; M2; V2) and presented as a level III on the Ranchos Los Amigos Scale. The severity of her traumatic brain injury was classified as ‘moderate’.

The patient underwent a craniotomy the following afternoon. After 2 weeks in the ICU, the patient’s Functional Independent Measure (FIM) score improved from 20 to 60 and was deemed appropriated for the inpatient rehabilitation unit. The patient presents with 7 days retrograde amnesia, making the post-traumatic amnesia 7 days. Her pre-existing conditions include hypertension and osteoporosis, and the medications she is taking for these conditions include Perindopril (Coversyl) and Alendronate (Fosamax), respectively. She has limited range of motion and requires assistance with ambulation. Due to her FIM score, hospital protocol dictates the she is to enter in-patient rehabilitation which includes daily physiotherapy.

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Examination Findings - 2 Weeks Post-op: In-patient Rehabilitation Program

Subjective

During examination, information was collected from the patient’s chart, from members within the multidisciplinary team, and from the patient and her husband. As mentioned, diagnosing imaging confirmed right sided focal subdural hematoma. When speaking with the patient, she had complaints of dizziness and a headache earlier that morning. Prior to her fall, the patient was living with her husband in a bungalow located just South of Kingston, ON. She is a retired teacher, and her husband is a healthy 68-year-old retired farmer. Her husband reported that she was active and independent and did not use any walking aids prior to her fall. She enjoyed activities such as pickle ball, camping, hiking, baking and playing with her grandchildren. Her husband also stated that they had 4 steps to get into their house, with a railing on the right side. Her main goal is to return home and resume her regular activities. Upon gathering a subjective interview, her husband also explained that he was very concerned about his wife and that he is having difficulties coping with her changes in behaviour.

Objective

After the patient was admitted to in-patient rehabilitation, the patient’s screening results showed stable vital signs with a heart rate of 76bmp, blood pressure of 115/76, SpO2 of 97% and intact integuments. The physiotherapist proceeded to choose various outcome measures to obtain the patient’s mental status at baseline and monitor any changes over time. 

The Galvestron Orientation and Amnesia Test (GOAT) was used to evaluate patient’s orientation and ability to recall events before and after the incident . Her GOAT score was 60/100, which was below the cut-off of 66 suggesting impaired memory. Specifically, the patient has in depth current memory and remembers most events after she gained consciousness in the ICU; however, she shows sign of retrograde amnesia from events that happened 7 days before the incident. 

The Ranchos Los Amigos scale is a useful tool to rate the patient’s cognitive level after the patient regains consciousness from a TBI.  During initial assessment, she presented with level VI (Confused-appropriate) on the Ranchos Los Amigos scale. As such, the patient was ready for rehabilitation since she was able to consistently follow simple directions (i.e., one step commands), showed carry over for relearned familiar tasks (e.g., self-care), and could attend to highly familiar tasks for a certain period of time. However, the therapist must keep in mind that the patient requires maximal assistance in learning new tasks since the patient may show little carry over from previous sessions. Additionally, proper safety must be ensured (i.e., maximal supervision) since the patient may be unaware of her impairments and may be inconsistently oriented to person time and space.  

The Moss Attention Rating Scale (MARS) measures the effects of impaired attention on cognitive and motor performance specific to patients with TBI in acute rehabilitation. Considering that patients at level VI on the Ranchos scale mostly benefit from learning tasks in a non-distracting environment; the therapist could use an observational rating scale such as MARS to assess patient’s daily attentional state and use the results to provide appropriate cueing to help the patient focus. 

Total Raw Score: 62/110 

• Average MARS Item Score: 2.82 
• Factor 1 (Restlessness/ Distractibility) Score: 3.80 
• Factor 2 (Initiation) Score: 2.67  
• Factor 3 (Sustained/ Consistent Attention) Score: 2.33  
• 

  Moss Attention Rating Scale (MARS) score of patient upon initial assessment.

The Agitated Behavior Scale (ABS) was chosen to objectively measure the extent of agitation including levels of: disinhibition, aggression and liability, and is specific to the acute phase of acquired brain injury. The patient scored 20/56 upon initial assessment, which is considered borderline normal. Although patients at Rancho Los Amigos level VI tend to have decreased agitated behaviour, the ABS has been administered to monitor the extent of decrease over time.   

The Neurobehavioral Functioning Inventory (NFI) Depression Scale is used to measure post-injury depressive symptoms such as frustration, restlessness, loneliness, etc . Research shows that the NFI Depression Scale is highly reliable and valid, and is sufficient at identifying minimal, borderline and clinical depression in patients with a TBI. The patient scored 26/65 on the NFI depression scale. This score classifies her as 'minimally depressed', which means that the patient rarely experiences depressive symptoms, therefore immediate intervention is not required, but signs of depressive symptoms should be monitored throughout treatment.  

1. Sensory integrity 

• Proprioception, light touch, and sharp/dull discrimination were intact on the right and left extremities.

2. Assistive and adaptive device

• Patient was using a standard wheelchair when arrived to in-patient rehabilitation. 

3. Gait, locomotion and balance:  

• Ambulation: Able to ambulate with a four wheeled walker with heavy assistance of one person for 50m using a 3 points step- to gait pattern. 
• Decreased gait speed: measured as 0.50m/s (normal range is 0.82+/- 0.16 to 1.60 +/- 0.16m/s)  
• Observational gait assessment with 4 wheeled-walker: ataxia, difficulty clearing left foot during initial swing due to decreased dorsiflexion, hikes her left hip to clear left foot from ground during swing phase, hyperextension of right knee during terminal stance 
• Sitting balance: able to sit on the edge of the bed and wheelchair – requires supervision 
• Berg balance scale: 40/56 – increased risk of fall    

4. Motor function: Muscle tone graded on the Modified Ashworth Scale (MAS) 

• Left Lower Extremity 
  • Increased extensor tone in the following muscle groups:
    • left hip and knee extensors and ankle dorsiflexors
  • Grade 2 on the MAS 

• Right Lower Extremity 
  • No increase in muscle tone was detected  
  • Grade 0 on MAS 

• Left Upper Extremity 
  • Increased flexor tone in the following muscle groups:  
    • Left elbow, wrist and finger flexors  
  • Grade 2 on MAS. 

• Right Upper Extremity 
  • Slight increase in flexor tone in the follow muscle groups 
    • Right shoulder, elbow, wrist and finger flexors 
  • Grade 1 on MAS 

• Patient was unable to isolate movement in the left upper and lower extremities but is able to isolate movement in the right upper and lower extremities.  
• Patient presented with active (AROM) dorsiflexion, knee flexion as well as finger, elbow and wrist extension on both right and left sides.  

5. Range of Motion

Goniometry: Range of Motion Measurement (in Degrees)
	Left	Right
Shoulder flexion	176	179
Elbow flexion	140	145
Wrist flexion	80	80
Finger flexion	MCP: 90  PIP: 100  DIP: 90	MCP: 90  PIP: 100  DIP:90
Shoulder extension	45	55
Elbow extension	+10 degrees of flexion contracture	+5 degrees of flexion contracture
Wrist extension	50	65
Finger extension	MCP: 35  PIP: + 5 degrees of flexion contracture  DIP: + 5 degrees of flexion contracture	MCP: 40  PIP: +5 degrees of flexion contracture  DIP: +5 degrees of flexion contracture
Hip Flexion	100	120
Knee flexion	120	135
Hip Extension	20	20
Knee Extension	0	0
Dorsiflexion	5 degrees of plantar flexion contracture	20
Plantarflexion	45	45

6. Muscle Strength (MMT)

• Left side: Grade 3 across both L/E and U/E
• Right side: Grade 5 across whole L/E, Grade 4 across whole U/E  

7. Reflex Integrity

• Intact UMN and LMN reflexes

8. Total FIM score= 79, suggesting minimal assistance to accomplish tasks

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Physiotherapy Diagnosis

Patient presented with a moderate traumatic brain injury with imaging confirming an acute subdural hematoma affecting the frontal lobe of the brain. Patient demonstrated signs of increased tone, limited ROM, general weakness, and cognitive and behavioural deficits such as memory problems and mild agitation. Activities such as walking, sitting, ascending/descending stairs, and moving limbs in isolation were affected. Patient was unable to resume regular activities such as pickle ball, camping, hiking, baking, and playing with her grandchildren. However, she hoped to restore as much function as possible during rehabilitation so she could go back to doing things she enjoys. Patient is a good candidate for physiotherapy to help regain balance control, improve joint range of motion, reduce spasticity and overall restore physical function.

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Problem list

1. Reduced Level of Cognition

• Ranchos Los Amigos Level VI (confused–appropriate) - difficulties retaining new information, memory problems, unaware of safety concerns
• ABS scale = 29/56 - mild agitation
• FIM score = 60 - moderate FIM rating, indicating that patient is not ready for community-based rehabilitation

2. Signs of Post-Injury Depression

• NFI score = 26/65 - minimal depression

3. Impaired Gait and Balance

• Left side hip hike & decreased dorsiflexion during swing phase

• Supervision to sit in wheelchair and on edge of bed
• Berg balance scale = 40/56 - increased risk of falls

4. Reduced ROM

• Contractures in the left side elbow, wrist, and finger flexors, as well as ankle plantarflexors
• Contractures in the right side elbow and finger flexors
• Reduced wrist extension and flexion

5. Environmental impacts

• Four steps to get into house

6. Social Impacts

• Unable to resume regular activities – e.g. playing with grandchildren, hiking, camping, pickle ball
• Husband is concerned for her health and is having difficulties coping with his wife's changes in behaviour

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Intervention

The patient was at a level VI (confused-appropriate) of the Ranchos Los Amigo scale, and was not cognitively aware of her condition, the focus of in-patient rehabilitation was to create a program based on not only the patient's goals, but also the facility's protocol on TBI rehabilitation. Typically, this includes restoring function and progressing the patient to a point where she safe to return home with her husband. Further, treatment will follow evidence-based clinical practice guidelines for TBI, specifically Understanding Traumatic Brain Injury by Ontario Neurotrauma Foundation and Rehabilitation following acquired brain injury by the British Society of Rehabilitation Medicine (BSRM). Therefore, in-patient rehabilitation will involve components of task-specific training, balance re-training, gait re-education, strength training and aerobic fitness training, all in the context of functional tasks where possible. 

To maximize outcomes of treatment, the in-patient rehabilitation program was adapted to use appropriate learning strategies based on the patient’s cognitive abilities. Treatment began by using distributed practice, explicit feedback, closed environments, clear and concise instructions, and had a structured routine. As the patient improved in cognitive and physical function, treatment progressed to using a more open environment, random practice schedule, implicit feedback and more complex cognitive tasks. To avoid fatigue, the patient’s energy levels were monitored treatment was adapted as needed. Adaptations included: frequency, intensity, and amount of exercises were lowered during treatment sessions, the adaptation chosen depended on her needs at the time. Upper extremity ROM and strengthening was incorporated into dynamic sitting exercises to reduce the amount of exercises provided and avoid redundancy. Finally, segments of education for both the patient and her husband were included in treatment. Education sessions included the physical, cognitive, behavioural and emotional impacts of TBI, as well as the prognosis and symptoms of TBI. It was important to educate her husband on areas of treatment he could help with, and how he could support his wife throughout her prognosis. 

*NOTE: Treatment occurred daily, for 1-hr sessions. All of the exercises are listed below, however, not all were performed in a single treatment session. Each day of the week, treatment involved a selection of these exercises, and parameters varied, depending on the patient's tolerance. In addition, it was recommended that the patient work on these exercises outside of rehab as well, either with her husband or other staff .        

Balance and Mobility – Start treatment with basic static sitting and standing postures, and then progress to dynamic exercises if patient tolerates well. The idea of including these exercises in the program is to help the patient gain balance prior to introducing more dynamic, functional and complex movements, such as walking and/or ascending and descending stairs.    

Static sitting: with close supervision
Exercise	Description	FITT principle
Educate on seating posture in wheelchair	Trunk upright, arms on the armrests, wide base of support with feet (I.e. feet shoulder width apart), back against chair, head & neck erect	N/A
Educate on seating posture on edge of bed	Trunk upright, arms placed on the bed beside her body, wide base of support with feet (I.e. feet shoulder width apart), head & neck erect	N/A
Hold posture sitting in wheelchair or on edge of bed	*Have patient practice seating posture whenever she is in seating position (e.g. during meals, sitting on edge of bed, sitting up in bed, etc.)	F – 3-4 days/week  I – quiet sitting, no movement   T – 3 sets holding for 1-minute, with 1-minute break in between sets   T – static sitting exercise

Dynamic sitting: with close supervision, while maintaining proper seating posture
Exercise	Description	FITT
Functional tasks involving shoulder flexion and abduction	Reaching for a cup on a table, alternating the location of the cup throughout sets  Bringing utensils to/from mouth during eating   Ensure patient goes back to neutral position (e.g. hands on lap) after each reach	F – 3-4 days/week    I – minimal intensity, to patient’s comfort   T – 3 sets, 6 reps (1 rep = 1 reach for cup) with 1-minute break in between sets   T – dynamic sitting exercise
Knee extension	Kicking outwards to aim for a target	F – 3-4 days/week   I – minimal intensity, to patient’s comfort   T – 3 sets, 6 reps (alternating cup location) with 1-minute break in between sets   T – dynamic sitting exercise

  

Static standing: one assist in parallel bars
Exercise	FITT principle
Standing, eyes open	F – 3-4 days/week   I – quiet standing, no movement, to patient’s comfort   T – 3 sets holding for 30 seconds, with 1-minute break in between   T – static standing exercise
Standing, eyes closed	F – 3-4 days/week   I – quiet standing, no movement, to patient’s comfort    T –3 sets holding for 30 seconds, with 1-minute break in between sets   T – static standing exercise

Dynamic standing: one assist in parallel bars
Exercise	FITT principle
Weight shifting left to right	F – 3-4 days/week   I – minimal intensity, to patient’s comfort    T – 3 sets, 6 reps (e.g. 6 weight shifts) on each leg, 1-minute break in between sets   T – dynamic standing exercise
Standing, turning head to look at sticker on wall	F – 3-4 days/week   I – minimal intensity, to patient’s comfort   T – 3 sets, 10 reps (alternating location of sticker), 1 –minute break in between sets   T – dynamic standing exercise
Taking a step forward, backwards and to the side	F – 3-4 days/week   I – moderate intensity, to patient’s comfort   T – 3 sets, 3 reps (1 rep = step forward, backwards and to the side), with 1-minute break in between sets   T – dynamic standing exercise
Marching on the spot	F – 3-4 days/week   I – moderate intensity, to patient’s comfort    T – 3 sets, 3 reps on each leg (1 rep = lifting of one leg), with 1-minute break in between sets   T – dynamic standing exercise

  

  Strength Training - Core strengthening and strengthening of the lower extremities will help improve coordination and efficiency of walking.   

Core Strengthening
Exercise	Description/progression	FITT principle
Knee Rolling	Patient lays on back, with knees bent, feet flat on bed and hands resting at her side. Patient rolls her hips so that her knees drop to the left, back to centre, and then to the right. Repeat.	F - 2-3 days/week  I - with gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets  T – strengthening/resistance exercise
Single Leg Drop-Outs	Patient lays on back, knees bent, feet flat with hands at her side. Patient rolls her left hip so her left knee goes out to the side, then brings it back to the centre. Repeat with right leg.	F - 2-3 days/week  I - against gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets   T – strengthening/resistance exercise

  

Lower Extremity Strengthening
Exercise	Description/progression	FITT principle
Hip abduction	Clam shells in sitting, progress to resistance band in sitting  Progress to clam shells in side-lying against gravity, and then side-lying with resistance band	F - 2-3 days/week  I - with gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets  T – strengthening/resistance exercise
Knee extension	Exercise is done in sitting, against gravity, done in balance/mobility section)  Progression: add ankle weight, use resistance band, or make it more functional by getting patient to extend her knee to put pants on	F - 2-3 days/week  I - against gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets   T – strengthening/resistance exercise
Knee flexion	Exercise is done in sitting, against gravity  Progression: add ankle weight or use resistance band	F - 2-3 days/week  I - against gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets  T – strengthening/resistance exercise
Ankle dorsiflexion	Exercise is done in sitting, against gravity  Progression: add resistance band	F - 2-3 days/week  I - against gravity, to patient's comfort level  T – 3 sets, 6 reps each leg, with 1-minute break in between sets  T – strengthening/resistance exercise

Flexibility/ROM - Patient should focus on stretching muscle groups that have developed contractures or have tightened throughout hospital stay.
Exercise	Description/progression	FITT principle
Plantar Flexor Stretch	Example: perform dorsiflexion with band	F - 3-4 days/week  I - comfortable stretch, no pain should be felt  T - 3 sets, 3 reps (hold each rep for 20 seconds)  T - static stretching
Finger & Wrist Flexor Stretch	Bring wrist and fingers into extension, patient places hands on bed beside their body (fingers facing forward) and push hands into bed. To increase stretch, face fingers backward.	F - 3-4 days per week   I - comfortable stretch, no pain should be felt  T - 3 sets, 3 reps (hold each rep for 20 seconds)  T - static stretching
Hip Extensor Stretch	In supine, bring one knee to chest. Repeat with other leg.	F - 3-4 days per week  I - comfortable stretch, no pain should be felt  T - 3 sets, 3 reps (hold each rep for 20 seconds)  T - static stretching

 

Task-Specific Training 

• Supine-to-Sit Transfers

• Sit-to-Stand Transfers     

*Encourage practicing with staff or PT whenever she needs/wants to get out of bed; can educate her husband on how to assist.

Gait Training - Ambulation is a common goal of many TBI patients, making gait training an important aspect of rehabilitation . However, the type of gait training varies depending on the severity of the TBI . The most common forms include range of motion activities, weight shifting, and lower extremity and core strengthening, which were addressed earlier in treatment . However, higher level exercises such as dual-task techniques can be introduced to make treatment more engaging and functional for the patient .

• Conventional gait training in parallel bars (with assistance)
  • Patient can walk with support of parallel bars
  • Therapist cueing to move joints appropriately throughout gait cycle
  • Work on reciprocal gait pattern & proper weight shifting

• Virtual reality - computer-generated virtual environment adds patient engagement, enhances motor learning, and makes gait training more task-oriented
  • Example: simulation of walking through grocery store, patient can pretend she is pushing cart through isles and grabbing food off shelves

• Dual-task training
  • Walking slowly on treadmill with assistance or body weight support, asked to turn head to look at something on the wall
  • Progress by increasing speed

Aerobic Exercise Training - Exercise can improve cardiorespiratory fitness as well as cognitive function among patients with TBI .

• Arm cycling, progress to leg cycling and eventually treadmill walking

F - 3-4 days/week

I - 60-90% of age predicted max HR (~93-140bpm)

T - 20-40 min per session

T - aerobic exercise

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Outcome

4 Week Re-Assssment

The ROM and flexibility exercises helped normalize the patient's muscle tone, especially in the left side of the body, The left upper extremities and lower extremities showed a slight increase in extensor and flexor muscle tones, respectively, classified as Grade 1 on the Modified Ashworth Scale.

With the decrease in contracture, she was able to isolate movement on the left side of the body, which facilitated her ability to perform ADL's such as self-care. Additionally, the therapist observed her Ranchos level to be VII (automatic-appropriate), suggesting that the patient requires minimal assistance in daily living skills. Similarly, her FIM score of 106 suggested that she no longer required assistance to accomplish tasks, but might require supervision to ensure safety.

Functional Independence Measure upon admission to in-patient rehabilitation versus at time of discharge by week 4.

Additionally, gait training combined with static and dynamic balance resulted in improvement of her gait:

- Berg Balance score= 49/56 (above the cut-off score of 45 for increased risk of falls in older adults)

- Gait speed= 0.73m/s, which is clinically significant (i.e., MCID= 0.16m/s)

- The patient is independently ambulate 250m with a quad cane, and go up and down 4 steps of stairs with minimal assistance.

Discharge Planning

The patient was considered appropriate for discharge based on the following information: 

• The patient achieved a FIM score of 106  
• The patient was able to safely ambulate 250m with a quad cane and go up and down 4 steps with the help of her husband. Based on her performance, she should be able to enter and exit her home, a bungalow with one (4?) step entrance, and ambulate within the home as needed, with the help of her spouse. 
• Berg score 49/56 
• Ranchos los amigos level VII (automatic-appropriate)  

Prior to discharge, the physiotherapist and occupational therapist had an education session with the patient and her spouse focusing on safe community ambulation and performing ADLs within the home. They also received a document with the same information to refer to when needed. 

• Her spouse was made aware of the fact that patients at Ranchos Level VII can overestimate their abilities and be unaware of the consequences of a decision. As such, her husband was encouraged to talk about safety and emergency measures with the patient. Furthermore, it was encouraged to do activities together, such as laundry and groceries, although the patient does not need close supervision in performing a task. The patient can be distracted, so it was encouraged to write a list of daily to do list. It was possible that the patient was unaware of people’s feelings and could potentially act uncooperatively in social situations. In that case, it was recommended to use a calm tone to offer feedback on such behaviour. 

The patient has been referred to home care and she will be followed by a physiotherapist and an occupational therapist.

https://www.neuroskills.com/education-and-resources/rancho-los-amigos-revised/ 

https://sunnybrook.ca/content/?page=rancho-scale-brain-injury-level-7 

Please cite these where needed :) 

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Discussion

The fictional case study followed a 65-year of woman attending physiotherapy in an in-patient rehabilitation unit following surgical intervention due to a TBI. The initial examination findings, 2 weeks after surgery, included impaired memory, balance issues, limited ambulation and increased tone in the left upper and lower extremities. Physiotherapy interventions consisted of balance training, task-specific exercises, strength training, flexibility exercises, gait training and postural education. … OUTCOMES (Tianzi). 

This case study included traditional physiotherapy to improve her strength, range of motion, performance of functional tasks, transfers, and posture. In addition to traditional methods, virtual reality was used to improve her gait. Based on her outcomes, the use of virtual reality to improve gait shows promise. Although there are many studies that demonstrate the benefits the use of virtual reality and gait training, few physiotherapists use virtual reality in practice. This raises the question of whether this is due to lack of knowledge of the benefits, lack of funding or both. Future inquiry should address the barriers to implementing the use of virtual reality in physiotherapy practice and beneficial technologies regarding the rehabilitation of patients with traumatic brain injuries. 

Furthermore, it is important to take the patient’s cognitive status into consideration during treatment and in discharge planning. Physiotherapists in this case study tailored rehabilitation to the patient’s cognitive abilities to maximize treatment outcomes by using implicit learning early in rehabilitation, and explicit learning strategies later in treatment.  Implicit learning strategies were used early in rehabilitation because our treatment focused on functional tasks, and implicit learning ensures acquisition and retention of a given skill . In contrast, explicit learning allows the patient to transfer learning to different tasks, which had higher importance only after the patient has mastered the skill. This being said, research on motor learning strategies used in TBI patient’s is not clear . Some studies show that implicit feedback is less impaired following a TBI, therefore it is argued that explicit feedback should be the focus in treatment . On the contrary, other research argues that implicit learning should be the focus. Therefore, it is still unclear as to which approach is better, and what sequence the learning styles should be provided in during TBI rehabilitation .  

In summary, although the patient in this case study showed general improvements in functional ability, there are some evidence gaps regarding the effectiveness of certain rehabilitation interventions following a TBI. In particular, further research must be done on the effectiveness of implicit and explicit learning strategies, as well the effectiveness and prevalence of the use of virtual reality in rehabilitation following a TBI. 

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Self-study Questions

What was the purpose of using the Moss Attention Rating Scale (MARS)? 

a) To objectively measure the extent of agitation including levels of: disinhibition, aggression and liability.

b) To measure the effects of impaired attention on cognitive and motor performance specific to patients with TBI in acute rehabilitation

c) To evaluate patient’s orientation and ability to recall events before and after the incident. 

d) To measure post-injury depressive symptoms such as frustration, restlessness, loneliness 

What is NOT a part of the patient’s problem list? 

a) Impaired Gait

b) Unable to participate in hobbies 

c) Impaired Balance 

d) Increased ROM (Hypermobile) 

Based on physiotherapy patterns, which intervention is not as widely used by physiotherapists to improve gait in patients with a traumatic brain injury? 

a) Virtual Reality 

b) Static/Dynamic Balance 

c) Weight shifting 

d) Lower extremity strengthening 

Answers:

1. b
2. d
3. a

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