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| * In less developed countries such as Nepal, greater than 1 million women out of approximately 15 million women have been found to have uterine prolapse, equating to approximately 7% of the Nepalese female population<ref name=":0" /> | | * In less developed countries such as Nepal, greater than 1 million women out of approximately 15 million women have been found to have uterine prolapse, equating to approximately 7% of the Nepalese female population<ref name=":0" /> |
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| == Characteristics/Clinical Presentation == | | == Clinical Presentation == |
| | [[Image:Uterine prolapse mayoclinic.jpg|frame|right|300x200px|link=https://www.physio-pedia.com/File:Uterine_prolapse_mayoclinic.jpg]]<u>[[Image:Uterine prolapse mayoclinic.jpg|frame|right|300x200px]] |
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| The primary symptoms of a uterine prolapse are backache, perineal pain, and a sense of "heaviness" in the vaginal area.<ref name="two">Goodman CC, Fuller KS. Pathology: Implications for the Physical Therapist. 3rd ed. St. Louis: Saunders Elsevier, 2009</ref> Pain associated with uterine prolapse can be located centrally or suprapubic, and can be described as "dragging" in the groin. This pain is due to stretching of the ligamentous supports and secondarily to abrasion of the prolapsed tissues.<ref name="one">Goodman CC, Snyder TEK. Differential Diagnosis for Physical Therapists. 4th ed. St. Louis: Saunders Elsevier, 2007.</ref> If the prolapse has progressed into a grade three or third degree prolapse, the person may feel as though they have a lump at the vaginal opening and have irritation and abrasion of the exposed mucous membrane of the cervix and vagina. This is possible both during sexual intercourse and from wiping with toileting procedures. The person may report that the symptoms are relieved by lying down and exacerbated with prolonged standing, walking, coughing or straining. An associated and often common complication of uterine prolapse is urinary incontinence.<ref name="two" /> Other descriptions used are the feeling of sitting on a small ball and a report of repeated bladder infections.<ref name="twentyfive">Vorvick LJ. Uterine prolapse. http://www.nlm.nig.gov/medlineplus/pring/ency/article/001508.htm (accessed 8 April 2010).</ref> <u>[[Image:Uterine prolapse mayoclinic.jpg|frame|right|300x200px]]
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| == Differential Diagnosis ==
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| == Associated Co-morbidities ==
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| Obesity is a co-morbidity that often leads to progression and complication with uterine prolapse. In a study by the NIH over a five year period, 55.7% of the women in the study gained weight and the rate of prolapse increased from 40.9% to 43.8%. Looking specifically at uterine prolapse, when comparing participants with healthy BMI’s to overweight and obese persons, the risk of prolapse increased by 43% and 69%, respectively. However, the loss of weight did not presuppose a reversal of the uterine prolapse.<ref name="four" /> Other associated diseases that exacerbate uterine prolapse are chronic constipation and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) due to the relationship between increased intra-abdominal pressure (bearing down) with increase in severity of the prolapse.<ref name="twelve">Mayo clinic staff. Uterine Prolapse. http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/uterine-prolapse/DS00700/DSECTION=risk-factors (accessed 5 April 2010).</ref>
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| == Medications ==
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| [[Image:HRT.jpg|right|400x400px]]<ref>Nazario B. Slideshow: all about menopause and perimenopause. http://www.webmd.com/menopause/slideshow-menopause-overview (accessed 11 April 2010).</ref>Hormone replacement therapy in the oral or vaginal form is indicated or a possible treatment to assist in maintaining the elasticity of the pelvic floor musculature.<ref name="two" /><ref name="three" /> Women who have damage to tissue during childbirth do not frequently notice the laxity and pelvic relaxation until they enter menopause. Vaginal tissue and supporting structures depend on estrogen for their strength and elasticity. As estrogen levels decrease in certain situations (menopause and breastfeeding mothers), the symptoms become more apparent. Estrogen replacement can come in the form of pills, vaginal rings, patches, or vaginal creams and are often indicated for lower grades of prolapse as the primary form of treatment. More severe prolapse is less likely to respond to estrogen therapy alone, however, it can be used as an adjunct to other treatments. Estrogen replacement can also be used after surgery to maintain results of surgery and help to revitalize dry and thin vaginal tissue.<ref name="ten">Streicher LF. Uterine prolapse and pelvic relaxation. www.mygyne.info/uterineProlapse.htm (accessed 5 April 2010).</ref>
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| == Diagnostic Tests/Lab Tests/Lab Values ==
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| Observation is often the first means of diagnosis.<ref name="two" /> Physical examination is the primary means of diagnosis. A bimanual test is performed with a speculum while the person is at rest and when the person is straining. If the prolapse is not apparent with the first method, the person repeats the test while standing with one foot on a chair. The person is then graded using a first through third degree categorization. A first degree prolapse is characterized by descent of the uterus to above the hymen. A second-degree prolapse is to the level of the hymen and a third-degree prolapse is below the level of the hymen and protrudes through the vaginal opening.<ref name="two" /> Urine culture is ordered if needed. If still unsure about the diagnosis, pelvic ultrasonography or cystography can be ordered.<ref name="three" />
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| == Causes ==
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| Women most at risk for this condition are those who have had multiple pregnancies and deliveries in combination with obesity. Associated risk factors are trauma to the pudendal or sacral nerves when giving birth. The disorder has been attributed to prolonged labor, bearing down before full dilation, and forceful delivery of the placenta. Decreased muscle tone due to aging, excessive strain during bowel movement and complications of pelvic surgery have also been associated with prolapse of the uterus and adjacent organs.<ref name="two" /> Associated risk also exists with pelvic tumors and neurologic condition like spina bifida and diabetic neuropathy which interferes with innervation of pelvic musculature.<ref name="two" /> Genetics are suspected in this condition due to multiple familial relations and generations with this and related conditions.<ref name="ten" /> A recent article has found that Cesarean section may lower the risk for pelvic organ prolapse.<ref name="twentysix">Reuters Health Information. Cesarean section may lower risk of pelvic organ prolapse. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2009;200:243-245.</ref> Summary of Causes:
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| *Multiple pregnancies and deliveries
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| *Obesity
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| *Trauma to pudendal or sacral nerves
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| *Aging related muscle changes
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| *Excessive strain during bowel movements
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| *Pelvic tumors
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| *Genetic predisposition <br><br>
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| <span id="fck_dom_range_temp_1271009608359_357" />
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| == Systemic Involvement ==
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| The digestive and urinary system can be impacted by uterine prolapse if the uterus obstructs the bladder/urethra and the rectum, decreasing the ability to void.<ref name="six">Hove MC, Pool-Goudzwaard Al, Eijkemans MJC, Steegers-Theunissen RPM, Burger CW, Vierhout ME. The prevalence of pelvic organ prolapse symptoms and signs and their relation with bladder and bowel disorders in a general female population. Int Urogynecol J 2009; 20:1037-1045.</ref> The reproductive system can also be impacted by painful intercourse, decreasing the ability for reproduction.<ref name="one" />
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| == Medical Management ==
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| === Corrective Surgery ===
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| Corrective surgery was a once popular first step for uterine prolapse but has fallen second choice to rehabilitation. When surgery is indicated, it is a management tool for second, third, and fourth-degree uterine prolapse.<ref name="two" /> Pelvic organ prolapse surgery has a success rate of 65% to 90% and has a repeated rate of operation at 30%. Patients who have more than one compartment involved may need a combination of surgeries and surgery can often predispose patients to prolapse in another compartment. Surgery can be either open or laparoscopic of the abdomen or can be in the vagina using fasciae, mesh, tape or sutures to suspend the organs. Another surgical procedure that is used in attempt to conserve the uterus is a sacrohysteropexy which is a Y-shaped graft that attaches the uterus to the sacrum.<ref name="three" /> One case study that examined the effectiveness in laparoscopic sacrohysteropexy, stated that this procedure “maintains durable anatomic restoration, normal vaginal axis and sexual function.” It also requires less time and less adhesion formation due to the laparoscopic approach versus an abdominal route.<ref name="seven">Faraj R, Broome J. Laparoscopic sacrohysteropexy and myomectomy for uterine prolapse: a case report and review of the literature. Journal of Medical Case Reports 2009; 3: 99-102.</ref> Vaginal hysterectomy, vesicourethral suspension, and abdominal hysterectomy are other possible approaches.<ref name="two" /> Important components for consideration of a surgical approach are:
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| *Degree of prolapse
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| *Desire for future pregnancies
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| *Other medical conditions
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| *The woman's desire to retain vaginal function
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| *The woman's age and general health<ref name="twentyfive" />
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| {{#ev:youtube|gdAMSE2ViTY}}<ref>Pedro Torres. Total Uterine Prolapse. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gdAMSE2ViTY [last accessed 4/5/10]</ref>
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| | <ref>Pedro Torres. Total Uterine Prolapse. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gdAMSE2ViTY [last accessed 4/5/10]</ref> |
| === Pessary === | | === Pessary === |
| A pessary is a shaped device made to support the uterus in the vagina. This is often a non-surgical approach used for both uterine prolapse and urinary incontinence. There is a supportive type for milder prolapse and a space-occupying type for more serious prolapse. The goal of the pessary is to find the largest fit that is comfortable. They are to be removed regularly for cleaning by the individual with correct education or by a health care professional.<ref name="three" /> There are rings, rings with a rubber support, cubes, donut shapes and inflatable balls. Depending on the degree of prolapse will determine the type that is chosen. <ref name="ten" />Patients who are not eligible for use of a pessary are those who cannot perform maintenance care of the pessary, those with vaginal ulcerations or lesions, severe atrophy of the vagina and women who develop recurrent vaginitis.<ref name="eight">UroToday. NIDDK UI Symposium - Devices for the Woman with Pelvic Organ Prolapse/Urinary Incontinence - Session Highlights. http://www.urotoday.com/48/browse_categories/urinary_incontinence_ui/niddk_ui_symposium___devices_for_the_woman_with_pelvic_organ_prolapseurinary_incontinence__session_highlights06102009.html (accessed 5 April 2010).</ref> Signs of improper fit are: those who have pain when wearing the pessary, vaginal ulceration and infection, and the inability to have a bowel movement or urinate.<ref name="ten" />
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| [[Image:Pessaries.jpg|frame|center]] <ref name="thirteen">Global Library of Women's Medicine. Stress Urinary Incontinence. http://www.glowm.com/index.html?p=glowm.cml/section_view&articleid=60 (accessed 5 April 2010).</ref> | | [[Image:Pessaries.jpg|frame|center]] <ref name="thirteen">Global Library of Women's Medicine. Stress Urinary Incontinence. http://www.glowm.com/index.html?p=glowm.cml/section_view&articleid=60 (accessed 5 April 2010).</ref> |
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| === Conservative Management ===
| | '''<u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u><u></u>''' |
| Surgical treatment is not appropriate when the woman has recently had a baby. Tissue damaged during childbirth that has caused an associated prolapse, often begins to improve when undergoing tissue healing. A symptomatic prolapse in the first few weeks after delivery, especially in breastfeeding mothers have lower estrogen levels, does not necessarily predispose the mother to long term issues. Improvement tends to occur after discontinuation of nursing and the return of normal hormone levels. Other women and/or physicians do not elect for medical treatment for Stage 1 and Stage 2 prolapse and take a wait and see approach.<ref name="ten" />
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| == Physical Therapy Management ==
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| Pelvic floor strengthening exercise is currently the front line treatment before surgery and also following surgery, these include but are not limited to Kegel exercises.<ref name="two" /><ref name="three" /> Other methods currently used are pelvic floor musculature re-education, postural education, biofeedback and electrical stimulation.<ref name="two" />
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| === Pelvic Floor Training ===
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| Pelvic floor muscles are seventy percent slow-twitch muscle fibers, which assist in muscle endurance with generation of slow and sustained contractions. These muscles are designed to have a less intense contraction, whereas the other thirty percent, which are fast twitch, are designed for quick and forceful contraction. An example of fast twitch muscles are the muscles that close the urethra during increased intra-abdominal pressure.<ref name="thirty" /> Pelvic floor training is progressive resistive exercises for the pelvic floor that are often titled Kegel exercises. These exercises improve urethral resistance and pelvic visceral support by increasing the voluntary periurethral muscles. Pelvic floor exercises enhance the voluntary closing mechanisms. A thorough assessment of pelvic floor function is necessary to determine the muscular strength and endurance by manual muscle test. <ref name="twentytwo">Institut Francais de Readapation URo-Genitale. Physical therapy for female pelvic floor disorders. Current Opinion in Obstetrics and Gynecology 1994;6:331-335.</ref> Kegel exercises are often explained as contracting the muscles that stop the flow of urine. A sustained pelvic contraction for a minimum of two seconds is likely to ensure a better response to physical therapy. A five point rating scale is used to describe the contractile strength during pelvic musculature examination.
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| {| width="446" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="1" border="1" align="center" style="width: 446px; height: 163px;"
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| |+ '''Five-Point Rating Scale<ref name="twentyseven" />'''
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| | Grade<span id="fck_dom_range_temp_1270905286363_914" />
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| | Description
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| |-
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| | 0
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| | No contraction
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| | 1
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| | Flicker, only with muscles stretched
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| |-
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| | 2
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| | Weak squeeze, 2 second hold
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| |-
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| | 3
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| | Fair squeeze with definite "lift" (in which the contraction can be felt to move in an upward direction)
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| |-
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| | 4
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| | Good squeeze, good hold with lift (the contraction must be able to be repeated a few times)
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| |-
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| | 5
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| | Strong squeeze, good lift, repeatable
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| |}
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| One important observation with success of Kegel exercise is the identification of the correct musculature contraction by a specialized Physical Therapist. Approximately 19% to 31% of women who believe they perform Kegels actually perform them correctly. The woman is instructed to contract her muscles around the examiners fingers while the examiner determines if the patient is using auxiliary muscles like the abdomen, gluteals, or thighs. Bearing down is a common mistake when asked to perform a pelvic muscle contraction. Once the women has achieved holding the outer layer of the pelvic floor (bulbocavernosus and ischiocavernosis) in conjunction with higher level muscles like the levator ani, she should attempt to hold both for ten seconds.<ref name="twentyseven" /> An article by Lianne Herbruck listed a chart of instructions that summate the correct Kegel exercise procedure for pelvic floor muscle training.
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| Current research prescribes a frequency of 30 contraction per day with an emphasis on increasing the strength and intensity of the contraction. A greater emphasis is placed on devoting a particular time to exercise and gradually increasing the amount and intensity of the exercise.<ref name="twentyseven" /> Though these exercises can improve function, they cannot reverse a Grade 3 or 4 uterine prolapse.<ref name="twentythree">Mayo Clinic. Pelvic floor weakness. Health Letter 2009:4-5.</ref> These exercises are often indicated as treatment for stress urinary incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, pelvic pain and defecatory dysfunction.<ref name="twentyseven">Throwbridge ER, Fenner DE. conservative management of pelvic organ prolapse. Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 2005;48:668-681.</ref>
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| === Vaginal Cones ===
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| This exercise is used as a adjunct to contraction exercises of the pelvic floor. The patient inserts weighted cones into the vagina and is instructed to maintain the position of the weighted cone. This method provides proprioceptive feedback to desired pelvic sustained contraction.<ref name="twentytwo" /> This is thought to help improve the tone through active and sustained muscle contraction.<ref name="thirty" /><br>
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| === Colpexin Sphere ===
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| The Colpexin Sphere is an intravaginal device that provides support to the pelvic floor musculature and assists in elevation for more effective pelvic floor musculature exercises. "The Colpexin Sphere is a smooth, round sphere made of medical grade polycarbonate plastic with an attached braided nylon string for easy removal. It provides dual benefits for the management of pelvic organ prolapse and improvement of pelvic floor muscle weakness. The Colpexin Sphere is available only by prescription."<ref name="thirtyone">Marine Medical. The Colpexin Sphere. http://www.colpexin.com/about.cfm (accessed 11 April 2010).</ref> This is especially helpful for those who have urinary incontinence in association with uterine prolapse. This device is appropriate for candidates who prefer a conservative approach to pelvic floor prolapse management and urinary incontinence.<ref name="thirty" /> <ref name="thirtyone" />[[Image:Colpexin sphere.jpg|center|400x300px]]
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| '''<u></u>''' | |
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| === Biofeedback ===
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| Biofeedback is used to detect and amplify internal physiological events and conditions using a monitoring instrument. This training helps to develop conscious control over these body processes. The objectives are to assist patients in gaining greater awareness and voluntary control over muscular control and contraction. This allows for a refined control of pelvic floor musculature for functional training. This technique uses a color video screen connected to a computerized unit which monitors different channels using intravaginal probe or surface electrodes depending on the muscles being selected.<ref name="twentytwo" /> The identification of the levator ani is important with contraction during the Kegel exercises. If they are weak or absent, physical therapy is indicated.<ref name="thirty" />
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| === Behavioral Modification ===
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| This technique is used to bring attention to the possible interactions between the patient's symptoms and their environment and provide techniques for behavioral modification. Such techniques consist of conditioning, fluid intake regulation, and use of devices. Bladder training is used for patients with associated incontinence for bladder prompted training, bladder drills, bladder habit training, and bladder retraining. In bladder retraining the patient is to keep a record of voiding activity over seven days and gradually increase increments between urination toward a normal three hour interval. The patient attempts to resist the urge to urinate by squeezing the pelvic floor and sphincter muscles until the urge resolves.<ref name="twentytwo" />
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| === Electrical Stimulation ===
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| Electrical stimulation is used to inhibit the micturition reflex and contract pelvic floor muscles. Using a vaginal or anal probe, the electrical stimulation produces a contraction of the levator ani muscle. Electrical stimulation is also used based on the theory that low-level electrical currents might re-innervate the pelvic floor and change the ratio of slow-to-fast-twitch muscle fibers.<ref name="thirty" /> Electrostimulation is used in treatment of stress incontinence, enhancing the periurethral sphincter and urge incontinence, inhibiting the overactive detruser muscle. There are no side-effects except some discomfort but it is contraindicated for pregnancy, vaginal infection, retention and demand pacemaker.<ref name="twentytwo" />
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| '''<u></u>'''
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| === Education ===
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| Education is an important aspect of treatment, especially education on positions of irritation and management of pain. Education plays an important role during exercise and discussion of sexual intercourse with gravity assisted positions. Supine with a pillow or wedge support under the pelvis can be useful position for rest, pelvic floor exercise performance and during intercourse.<ref name="one" /> Education is also important to help the patient understand why maintaining an ideal body weight limits the pressure the abdominal content places on the pelvic floor. Patients also be instructed to squeeze or perform a Kegel contraction when they are lifting or straining. Discussing bowel habits where the patient does not strain using the pelvic floor when having a bowel movement is an important component of bowel movement retraining. Women should also be advised on correct posture to aid in preventing strain on the pelvic floor muscles.<ref name="twentyseven" /><br>
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| == Other Advice ==
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| '''Methods considered in association with pelvic floor muscle strengthening are:'''
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| *weight loss for preventative measures
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| *smoking cessation
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| *treatment of constipation to decrease intra-abdominal pressure<ref name="three" />
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| *adequate hydration
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| *increased fiber intake
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| *developing regular bowel habits
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| *regular exercise
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| *hormone replacement therapy.<ref name="two" />
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| *Education for the use of tight undergarments to help support and relieve symptoms of the prolapse.<ref name="twentyseven" />
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| == Differential Diagnosis == | | == Differential Diagnosis == |
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| '''<u>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cystocele/DS00665 Cystocele]</u>''': herniation of the urinary bladder into the vagina <ref name="two" />[[Image:Cystocele.jpg|center|200x200px]] | | '''<u>[http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/cystocele/DS00665 Cystocele]</u>''': herniation of the urinary bladder into the vagina <ref name="two" />[[Image:Cystocele.jpg|center|200x200px]] |
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| <u>[http://www.acog.org/publications/patient_education/bp012.cfm Vaginal vault prolapse]</u>''': apex of vagina prolapses <ref name="two" /> ''' | | <u>[http://www.acog.org/publications/patient_education/bp012.cfm Vaginal vault prolapse]</u>''': apex of vagina prolapses <ref name="two" /> ''' |
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| | <ref>Diane Lee. Integrated Systems Model for Physiotherapy in Womens' Health. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5oslM6Pe9AU [last accessed 8/2/15]</ref> |
| == Resources ==
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| MayoClinic.com: [http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/uterine-prolapse/DS00700 www.mayoclinic.com/health/uterine-prolapse/DS00700]
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| Cleveland Clinic: [http://my.clevelandclinic.org/disorders/Uterine_Prolapse/hic_Uterine_Prolapse.aspx my.clevelandclinic.org/disorders/Uterine_Prolapse/hic_Uterine_Prolapse.aspx]
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| Medline Plus: [http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001508.htm www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001508.htm]
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| {{#ev:youtube|5oslM6Pe9AU|300}}<ref>Diane Lee. Integrated Systems Model for Physiotherapy in Womens' Health. Available from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5oslM6Pe9AU [last accessed 8/2/15]</ref>
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| <br> {{#ev:youtube|4vCCy41lATo|300}}<ref>snowheadcouk. 600,000 Women in West Nepal suffer from Uterine Prolapse. Available from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4vCCy41lATo [last accessed 4/6/10</ref>
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| An international area of research and advocacy for women with uterine prolapse occurs through the women of Nepal. Currently they have the highest rate of uterine prolapse in the world and the poorest conditions for women based on position in society. To get more involved, the following site has been provided:
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| The Advocacy Project: [http://www.advocacynet.org/page/upa www.advocacynet.org/page/upa]
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| == References == | | == References == |
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