Panic Disorder: Difference between revisions

No edit summary
No edit summary
Line 27: Line 27:
Studies have shown that the cause is strongly correlated with the familial component. A literature review of several studies determined that individuals who have first-degree relatives with panic disorder are up to 20 times more likely to develop the disorder than control subjects.<ref name="JADA">Friedlander AH, Marder SR, Sung EC, Child JS. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002817714613209 Panic disorder: psychopathology, medical management and dental implications.] The Journal of the American Dental Association 2004;135(6):771-8.</ref> Family studies of twins also support strong correlation of panic disorder and genetics. It is indicated that identical twins have a significantly higher matching rate for panic disorder than fraternal twins. Studies further suggest that if an identical twin has panic disorder 40% of the time the other twin will develop the disorder.<ref name="pubmed health" />  
Studies have shown that the cause is strongly correlated with the familial component. A literature review of several studies determined that individuals who have first-degree relatives with panic disorder are up to 20 times more likely to develop the disorder than control subjects.<ref name="JADA">Friedlander AH, Marder SR, Sung EC, Child JS. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002817714613209 Panic disorder: psychopathology, medical management and dental implications.] The Journal of the American Dental Association 2004;135(6):771-8.</ref> Family studies of twins also support strong correlation of panic disorder and genetics. It is indicated that identical twins have a significantly higher matching rate for panic disorder than fraternal twins. Studies further suggest that if an identical twin has panic disorder 40% of the time the other twin will develop the disorder.<ref name="pubmed health" />  


<br>Biological theories suggest that defects in an individual’s autonomic nervous system are potential causes for the development of panic disorder. Such defects in the autonomic nervous system result in hypersensitivity, increased arousal and chemical imbalance which can lead to panic attacks.<ref name="NAMI">National Alliance on Mental Illness. Panic Disorder. http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&amp;Template=/TaggedPage/TaggedPageDisplay.cfm&amp;TPLID=54&amp;ContentID=23050 (Accessed 31 March 2011).</ref> Other studies reveal that abnormalities in the brain contribute to the development of panic disorder. Evidence from imaging studies have shown abnormalities in cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolism. Furthermore, researchers believe that the brain’s limbic system, specifically the amygdala, is responsible for the misinterpretation of the significance of bodily sensations. As the amygdala misinterprets a situation, the parabrachial nucleus is stimulated causing an increase in respiratory rate while also causing an increase in norephinephrine release resulting in an increase in blood pressure and heart rate.<ref name="JADA" /><br>  
<br>Biological theories suggest that defects in an individual’s autonomic nervous system are potential causes for the development of panic disorder. Such defects in the autonomic nervous system result in hypersensitivity, increased arousal and chemical imbalance which can lead to panic attacks.<ref name="NAMI">National Alliance on Mental Illness. Panic Disorder. http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&amp;Template=/TaggedPage/TaggedPageDisplay.cfm&amp;TPLID=54&amp;ContentID=23050 (Accessed 31 March 2011).</ref> Other studies reveal that abnormalities in the brain contribute to the development of panic disorder. Evidence from imaging studies have shown abnormalities in cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolism. Furthermore, researchers believe that the brain’s limbic system, specifically the amygdala, is responsible for the misinterpretation of the significance of bodily sensations. As the amygdala misinterprets a situation, the parabrachial nucleus is stimulated causing an increase in respiratory rate while also causing an increase in norephinephrine release resulting in an increase in blood pressure and heart rate.<ref name="JADA" /><br><br>Research shows a strong relationship between panic disorder and drug and alcohol abuse. It has been proposed that those with panic disorder use smoking and alcohol as a means of self-medication. However, other models suggest that substance abuse can exacerbate symptoms of panic disorder. One study indicates that smoking is three times more prevalent and harmful and that hazardous alcohol abuse is twice as prevalent in individuals with a history of panic attacks.<ref name="smoking">Mathew AR, Norton PJ, Zvolensky MJ, Buckner JD, Smits JA. Smoking behavior and alcohol consumption in individuals with panic attacks. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 2011;25:61-70.</ref> <br>  


[[Image:PD3.png]]<ref name="general practice" /><br>Research shows that there is a strong relationship between Panic Disorder and drug and alcohol abuse. It has been proposed that those with Panic Disorder use smoking and alcohol as a means of self-medication. However, other models suggest that substance abuse can exacerbate symptoms of Panic Disorder. One study indicates that daily and lifetime smoking is three times more prevalent and harmful and hazardous alcohol abuse is twice as prevalent in individuals with a history of panic attacks.<ref name="smoking">Mathew AR, Norton PJ, Zvolensky MJ, Buckner JD, Smits JA. Smoking behavior and alcohol consumption in individuals with panic attacks. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy. 2011;25:61-70. http://web.ebscohost.com.libproxy.bellarmine.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=c0eebe3f-fea2-46e3-89bc-fe36b15a5865%40sessionmgr11&amp;vid=5&amp;hid=10 (Accessed 14 March 2011).</ref> <br>Other theories suggest that Panic Disorder is related to psychological factors. Individuals with Panic Disorder commonly have a history of anxiety sensitivity in which they perceive bodily sensations to result in severe and life-threatening consequences.<ref name="medicine net">Medicine Net. Panic Attacks (Panic Disorder). http://www.medicinenet.com/panic_disorder/article.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).</ref> An individual is likely to develop Panic Disorder if he/she has a history of physical or sexual abuse. Other potential causes include physical illness, significant life transitions, or severe stress such as the death of a family member.<ref name="help guide" /> <br>  
Other theories suggest that panic disorder is related to psychological factors. Individuals with panic disorder commonly have a history of anxiety sensitivity in which they perceive bodily sensations to result in severe and life-threatening consequences.<ref name="medicine net">Medicine Net. Panic Attacks (Panic Disorder). http://www.medicinenet.com/panic_disorder/article.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).</ref> An individual is likely to develop panic disorder if he/she has a history of physical or sexual abuse. Other potential causes include physical illness, significant life transitions, or severe stress such as the death of a family member.<ref name="help guide" /> <br>  


== Characteristics/Clinical presentation<ref name="webmd" /><ref name="book" /><ref name="pubmed health" /><ref name="pathology">Goodman CC, Fuller KS. Pathology: Implications for the Physical Therapist. 3rd edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2009.</ref><ref name="ADAA">Anxiety Disorders Association of America. Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. http://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/panic-disorder-agoraphobia (accessed 15 March 2011).</ref><ref name="APA">American Psychological Association. Anxiety. http://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety/panic-disorder.aspx (accessed 27 March 2011).</ref><ref name="differential diagnosis">Goodman CC, Snyder TK. Differential Diagnosis for Physical Therapists: Screening for Referral. 4th edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2007.</ref> ==
== Characteristics/Clinical presentation  ==


According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), diagnostic criteria includes: “recurrent unexpected panic attacks” that are followed by 1 month or more of “persistent concern about having additional attacks,” “worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences,” or “significant change in behavior related to attacks.”<ref name="psychiatry online" />
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV), diagnostic criteria includes: “recurrent unexpected panic attacks” that are followed by 1 month or more of “persistent concern about having additional attacks,” “worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences,” or “significant change in behavior related to attacks.”<ref name="psychiatry online" />
 
Panic Disorder is characterized by many somatic and cognitive symptoms. The following are characteristics of a panic attack which can occur at any time and generally last around 10 minutes. Four of the following symptoms must be present to meet the diagnostic criteria of Panic Disorder.


== Signs and symptoms ==
Panic disorder is characterized by many somatic and cognitive symptoms. The following are characteristics of a panic attack which can occur at any time and generally last around 10 minutes. Four of the following symptoms must be present to meet the diagnostic criteria of panic disorder.
*Shortness of breath  
*Shortness of breath  
*Chest pain  
*Chest pain  
Line 46: Line 46:
*Nausea  
*Nausea  
*Tingling or numbness in fingers or toes  
*Tingling or numbness in fingers or toes  
*Chills or hot flashes  
*Chills or hot flashes<ref name="differential diagnosis">Goodman CC, Snyder TK. Differential Diagnosis for Physical Therapists: Screening for Referral. 4th edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2007.</ref>
*Fear of dying  
*Fear of dying  
*Fear of losing control or impending doom
*Fear of losing control or impending doom
<ref name="pubmed health" /><ref name="webmd" /><ref name="book" /><ref name="pathology">Goodman CC, Fuller KS. Pathology: Implications for the Physical Therapist. 3rd edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2009.</ref><ref name="ADAA">Anxiety Disorders Association of America. Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. http://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/panic-disorder-agoraphobia (accessed 15 March 2011).</ref><ref name="APA">American Psychological Association. Anxiety. http://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety/panic-disorder.aspx (accessed 27 March 2011).</ref>


Symptoms of Panic Disorder have physical, behavioral and cognitive effects.<ref name="pathology" /><br>
==== Effects of symptoms ====
 
Symptoms of panic disorder have physical, behavioral and cognitive effects:<ref name="pathology" />
==== Physical [[Image:Anxiety.gif|right]]  ====
* Physical:
 
** Tachycardia
*Tachycardia  
**Shortness of breath  
*Shortness of breath  
**Sweating or chills  
*Sweating or chills  
**Increased respiration rate  
*Increased respiration rate  
**Increased blood pressure  
*Increased blood pressure  
**Dizziness  
*Dizziness  
**Muscle tension
*Muscle tension<br>
* Behavioral
 
** Sleep disturbance
==== Behavioral ====
**Difficulty with memory or concentration  
 
**Apprehension  
*Sleep disturbance  
**Irritability  
*Difficulty with memory or concentration  
**Hyper-alertness  
*Apprehension  
**Uncertainty
*Irritability  
* Cognitive
*Hyper-alertness  
** Fear of losing one’s mind
*Uncertainty<br>
**Fear of losing control  
 
**Sense of terror  
==== Cognitive ====
**Fear of dying<br> [[Image:Anxiety.gif|right]]
 
*Fear of losing one’s mind  
*Fear of losing control  
*Sense of terror  
*Fear of dying


== Differential diagnosis ==
== Differential diagnosis ==
Line 131: Line 127:
*MRI
*MRI


=== Associated Co-morbidities<ref name="psychiatry online" /><ref name="help guide">HelpGuide.org Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder. http://helpguide.org/mental/panic_disorder_anxiety_attack_symptom_treatment.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).</ref><ref name="mental health">National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/panic-disorder.shtml (Accessed 14 March 2011).</ref><ref name="general practice" />  ===
=== Associated Co-morbidities<ref name="psychiatry online" /><ref name="help guide">Help Guide. Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder. http://helpguide.org/mental/panic_disorder_anxiety_attack_symptom_treatment.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).</ref><ref name="mental health">National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/panic-disorder.shtml (Accessed 14 March 2011).</ref><ref name="general practice" />  ===


*Alcoholism  
*Alcoholism  

Revision as of 22:17, 18 September 2018

Original Editors - Courtney Pancake from Bellarmine University's Pathophysiology of Complex Patient Problems project.

Top Contributors - Courtney Pancake, Leana Louw, Admin, 127.0.0.1, Elaine Lonnemann, Nicole Clark, Wendy Walker, WikiSysop, Kim Jackson, Candace Goh, Amanda Ager and Manisha Shrestha  


This article is currently under review and may not be up to date. Please come back soon to see the finished work! (19 May 2024)

Definition/Description[edit | edit source]

Panic disorder is a type of anxiety disorder that causes repeated attacks of intense fear for no reason. These episodes of panic attacks strike very suddenly without warning.[1] Feelings of terror will develop for no apparent reason and may trigger severe physical reactions combined with major changes in behavior or persistent anxiety over having further attacks.[2] The ongoing fear of having another panic attack can affect daily functioning and general quality of life.[3] It can cause the person to avoid places and situations where an attack has occurred or where they believe an attack will occur.

Upon diagnosis of panic disorder the psychiatrist must also determine whether agoraphobia is present or not. Agoraphobia literally means “fear of open spaces.”[4]  It refers to fear and avoidance of situations in which the person thinks a panic attack is likely to occur. Those with agoraphobia might avoid crowded environments such as grocery stores, restaurants, malls, churches, and public transportation. This avoidance behavior may lead to the person refusing to travel outside their home or requiring to be accompanied by a friend or family member.[5]

Epidemiology/Etiology[edit | edit source]

Epidemiology[edit | edit source]

The lifetime prevalence of panic disorder is 1.6-2.2% while the onset of age is 20-29 years.[6] Panic disorder can be classified as with or without agoraphobia. Therefore, prevalence rates for the two classifications of the disorder exist as well. According to the National Comorbidity Study, the lifetime prevalence without agoraphobia is 3.5%, while the lifetime prevalence with agoraphobia is 5.3%.[5] Panic disorder affects about 2.4 million adult Americans and is twice as common in females. Symptoms usually begin before age 25, but may occur in the mid 30s as well.[1] The onset of panic disorder can also occur prior to puberty, however, it is uncommon based on the very low prevalence (0.5-1%) of the general pediatric population. Although panic disorder may occur in children, it is often not diagnosed until they are older. If panic disorder happens to appear prior to adulthood it is more likely to be seen in adolescent females. Symptoms of panic disorder that are evident in childhood and adolescence can often lead to future psychiatric disorders.

Etiology[edit | edit source]

The exact cause of panic disorder has yet to be determined, however, several factors are thought to play a role in the development of this disorder. Family history, brain abnormalities, substance abuse and stress are among the factors that trigger panic attacks and furthermore, panic disorder.[7]

Studies have shown that the cause is strongly correlated with the familial component. A literature review of several studies determined that individuals who have first-degree relatives with panic disorder are up to 20 times more likely to develop the disorder than control subjects.[7] Family studies of twins also support strong correlation of panic disorder and genetics. It is indicated that identical twins have a significantly higher matching rate for panic disorder than fraternal twins. Studies further suggest that if an identical twin has panic disorder 40% of the time the other twin will develop the disorder.[1]


Biological theories suggest that defects in an individual’s autonomic nervous system are potential causes for the development of panic disorder. Such defects in the autonomic nervous system result in hypersensitivity, increased arousal and chemical imbalance which can lead to panic attacks.[8] Other studies reveal that abnormalities in the brain contribute to the development of panic disorder. Evidence from imaging studies have shown abnormalities in cerebral blood flow and cerebral metabolism. Furthermore, researchers believe that the brain’s limbic system, specifically the amygdala, is responsible for the misinterpretation of the significance of bodily sensations. As the amygdala misinterprets a situation, the parabrachial nucleus is stimulated causing an increase in respiratory rate while also causing an increase in norephinephrine release resulting in an increase in blood pressure and heart rate.[7]

Research shows a strong relationship between panic disorder and drug and alcohol abuse. It has been proposed that those with panic disorder use smoking and alcohol as a means of self-medication. However, other models suggest that substance abuse can exacerbate symptoms of panic disorder. One study indicates that smoking is three times more prevalent and harmful and that hazardous alcohol abuse is twice as prevalent in individuals with a history of panic attacks.[9]

Other theories suggest that panic disorder is related to psychological factors. Individuals with panic disorder commonly have a history of anxiety sensitivity in which they perceive bodily sensations to result in severe and life-threatening consequences.[10] An individual is likely to develop panic disorder if he/she has a history of physical or sexual abuse. Other potential causes include physical illness, significant life transitions, or severe stress such as the death of a family member.[11]

Characteristics/Clinical presentation[edit | edit source]

According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV), diagnostic criteria includes: “recurrent unexpected panic attacks” that are followed by 1 month or more of “persistent concern about having additional attacks,” “worry about the implications of the attack or its consequences,” or “significant change in behavior related to attacks.”[6]

Signs and symptoms[edit | edit source]

Panic disorder is characterized by many somatic and cognitive symptoms. The following are characteristics of a panic attack which can occur at any time and generally last around 10 minutes. Four of the following symptoms must be present to meet the diagnostic criteria of panic disorder.

  • Shortness of breath
  • Chest pain
  • Excessive sweating
  • Palpitations or rapid heart beat
  • Dizziness or feeling faint
  • Trembling or shaking
  • Intense feeling of terror
  • Nausea
  • Tingling or numbness in fingers or toes
  • Chills or hot flashes[12]
  • Fear of dying
  • Fear of losing control or impending doom

[1][3][5][13][14][15]

Effects of symptoms[edit | edit source]

Symptoms of panic disorder have physical, behavioral and cognitive effects:[13]

  • Physical:
    • Tachycardia
    • Shortness of breath
    • Sweating or chills
    • Increased respiration rate
    • Increased blood pressure
    • Dizziness
    • Muscle tension
  • Behavioral
    • Sleep disturbance
    • Difficulty with memory or concentration
    • Apprehension
    • Irritability
    • Hyper-alertness
    • Uncertainty
  • Cognitive
    • Fear of losing one’s mind
    • Fear of losing control
    • Sense of terror
    • Fear of dying
      File:Anxiety.gif

Differential diagnosis[edit | edit source]

  • Cardiac Conditions:
    • Arrythmias
    • Supraventricular tachycardia
  • Enocrine disorders:
    • Hyperthyroidism
    • Hyperparathyroidism
    • Pheochromocytoma

[12][16][17]

Diagnostic procedures[edit | edit source]

Mental health professionals use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders (DSM) as a standard for classifying various mental disorders. It is used by clinicians and researchers in a variety of settings including inpatient, outpatient, private practice, primary care, consultation-liason, etc. The DSM-IV (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Health Disorders, Fourth Edition) was published in 1994 and has been the last major revision.[18]

File:Screen shot 2011-04-18 at 9.11.54 PM.png

Image:Screen_shot_2011-04-18_at_9.19.34_PM.pngDiagnostic Criteria for Panic Attacks include the presence of four or more of the following symptoms which develop with a rapid onset and peak within 10 minutes[6]:

  • Palpitations
  • Sweating
  • Trembling or shaking
  • Sensations of shortness of breath or smothering
  • Feeling of choking
  • Chest pain or discomfort
  • Nausea or abdominal distress
  • Feeling dizzy, unsteady, lightheaded or faint
  • Feelings of unreality or feelings of being detached from oneself
  • Fear of losing control or going crazy
  • Fear of dying
  • Paresthesias
  • Chills or hot flashes

To rule out other conditions, the following diagnostic and lab tests might be necessary[3]:

  • Physical and Neurological Exam
  • EKG
  • CT scan
  • Blood tests
  • PET scan
  • MRI

Associated Co-morbidities[6][11][19][20][edit | edit source]

  • Alcoholism
  • Depression: lifetime prevalence of 34.7% in patients with Panic Disorder with agoraphobia and a lifetime prevalence of 38.7%[6]
  • Drug Abuse
  • Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
  • Social Phobia
  • Mitral Valve Prolapse
  • Migraine
  • Labile Hypertension
  • Suicide

Medical management[20][edit | edit source]

Psycho-Education[edit | edit source]

  • Educating the patient about the disorder so they can develop an understanding and acceptance of their diagnosis. Offering resources to facilitate their understanding. 

Lifestyle Changes[edit | edit source]

  • Avoiding stimulants such as caffeine, or other substances and medication that will hinder recovery
  •  Regular moderate exercise
  • Managing life stresses

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy[edit | edit source]

  • 75-95% of patients are panic free after treatment while maintaining improvements for at least 2 years
  • patient becomes aware of thought, emotions and beliefs of situations triggering panic attacks
  • helps patient identify inaccurate thinking
  • limitation: not offered by all psychologists and psychiatrists

Breathing/Relaxation Exercises[edit | edit source]

  • Slow breathing and graded muscle relaxation techniques

Cognitive Restructuring[edit | edit source]

  •  Working with patient to identify inaccurate cognitions and replace them with realistic ideas

Graded Exposure[edit | edit source]

  • Reintroducing the patient to feared stimuli to test their anxiety control
  • Progress as tolerated to more challenging feared stimuli

Pharmacological Management[edit | edit source]

  • Anti-Depressants called Selective Serotonin Reuptaked Inhibitors (SSRI) are the first line of treatment and most commonly used medications to treat Panic Disorder.  It may take a few weeks before anti-depresants begin to take effect, therefore, it is advised to take this medication continuously rather than only when panic attacks occur.[11] Some of the common SSRI's used to treat Panic Disorder include:[2]
    •  Fluoxetine (Prozac)
    •  Sertraline (Zoloft)
    •  Paroxetine (Paxil)
    • Fluvoxamine (Luvox)
    • Citalopram (Celexa)
    • Escitalopram (Lexapro)
      Benzodiazepines may be used if SSRI’s do not help.  This is a form of anti-anxiety medication which provides rapid relief of symptoms during a panic attack.  The effects can occur as quickly as 30 minutes after taking the medication. However, this is considered to be the second line of treatment for panic disorder due to the highly addictive qualities and withdrawal symptoms that occur as a result of taking this medication.[11]  
    • Alprazolam (Xanax)
    • Clonazepam (Klonopin)
    • Lorazepam (Ativan)
  • Iglesias Alex, Iglesias Adam. Awake-alert hypnosis in the treatment of panic disorder: a case report. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. 2005; 47:249-257.

Physioterapy management[edit | edit source]

Physical Therapists are not involved in the primary treatment of Panic Disorder, however, it is important to be aware of the clinical presentation of this disorder.  Patients who present to PT with Panic Disorder may have symptoms that mimic other medical conditions, therefore, it is necessary for the PT to recognize the need for medical referral.[12] It is also possible for patients with Panic Disorder to present with signs and symptoms that mimic musculoskeletal dysfunction. These are the patients who will be experiencing muscle aches as a result of panic attacks. The PT must obtain a detailed history from the patient and perform an extensive evaluation in order to determine the source of the muscle aches.

Physical Therapists can play a role in helping to decrease the occurrence of panic attacks by encouraging the patient to exercise. Studies have shown that acute bouts of exercise can help to reduce or prevent the occurrence of anxiety attacks.[21] One of the suggested causes of Panic Disorder mentioned previously relates to abnormalities within the brain. However, exercise should be encouraged to allow the release of endorphins or the “feel good hormones” that leave a person feeling calm, energized and optimistic. Exercise also plays a role in increasing serotonin levels which in turn works to improve mood. According to the United States Surgeon General, physical activity helps to relieve symptoms of anxiety and depression as well as improve mood.

If treating patients with Panic Disorder in the Physical Therapy setting, clinicians should be advised to educate their patients on the benefits of exercise which will help manage Panic Disorder. It is also recommended to be aware that it is possible for exercise to induce panic attacks. Therefore, therapists should pay close attention to changes in signs and symptoms of these patients during exercise.

Resources[edit | edit source]

References[edit | edit source]

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubMed Health. Panic Disorder. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001922/ (Accessed 13 March 2011).
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Medline Plus. Panic Disorder. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/panicdisorder.html (accessed 13 March 2011).
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 WebMD. Anxiety and Panic Disorder Guide. http://www.webmd.com/anxiety-panic/guide/mental-health-panic-disorder (Accessed 13 March 2011).
  4. ↑ Torpy JM, Burke AE, Golub RM. Panic disorder. JAMA 2011;305:1256.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Barlow DH. Anxiety and its disorders. 2nd edition. New York: Guilford Publications, Inc., 2002.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 Psychiatry Online. APA Practice Guidelines. http://www.psychiatryonline.com/content.aspx?aID=155332 (accessed 27 March 2011).
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Friedlander AH, Marder SR, Sung EC, Child JS. Panic disorder: psychopathology, medical management and dental implications. The Journal of the American Dental Association 2004;135(6):771-8.
  8. ↑ National Alliance on Mental Illness. Panic Disorder. http://www.nami.org/Template.cfm?Section=By_Illness&Template=/TaggedPage/TaggedPageDisplay.cfm&TPLID=54&ContentID=23050 (Accessed 31 March 2011).
  9. ↑ Mathew AR, Norton PJ, Zvolensky MJ, Buckner JD, Smits JA. Smoking behavior and alcohol consumption in individuals with panic attacks. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 2011;25:61-70.
  10. ↑ Medicine Net. Panic Attacks (Panic Disorder). http://www.medicinenet.com/panic_disorder/article.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 Help Guide. Panic Attacks and Panic Disorder. http://helpguide.org/mental/panic_disorder_anxiety_attack_symptom_treatment.htm (Accessed 27 March 2011).
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Goodman CC, Snyder TK. Differential Diagnosis for Physical Therapists: Screening for Referral. 4th edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2007.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Goodman CC, Fuller KS. Pathology: Implications for the Physical Therapist. 3rd edition. St. Louis, Missouri: Saunders Elsevier, 2009.
  14. ↑ Anxiety Disorders Association of America. Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia. http://www.adaa.org/understanding-anxiety/panic-disorder-agoraphobia (accessed 15 March 2011).
  15. ↑ American Psychological Association. Anxiety. http://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety/panic-disorder.aspx (accessed 27 March 2011).
  16. ↑ Mend Solutions. Panic Disorder Differential Diagnosis. http://www.mend.net/panic/DifferentialDX.html (Accessed 28 March 2011).
  17. ↑ Oosthuizen P, Niehaus D, Stein D, Seedat S. Die angsversteurings. In: Emsley FA, Pienaar WP editors. Handboek vir psigiatrie, 2de uitgawe. Departement Psigiatrie: Universteit van Stellenbosch. Stellenbosch: Geestesgesondheid Inligtingsentrum van SA. 2005. pp. 59-
  18. ↑ PSYweb complete mental health site. DSM-IV DSM Disorders Diagnostic Criteria. http://www.psyweb.com/DSM_IV/jsp/dsm_iv.jsp (Accessed 30 March 2011).
  19. ↑ National Institute of Mental Health. Panic Disorder. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/anxiety-disorders/panic-disorder.shtml (Accessed 14 March 2011).
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15999167
  21. ↑ Strohle A, Feller C, Marlies O, Godemann F, Heinz A, Dimeo F. The acute antipanic activity of aerobic exercise. Am J Psychiatry. 2005;162:2376. http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/162/12/2376 (Accessed 14 March 2011).


Retrieved from "https://www.physio-pedia.com/index.php?title=Panic_Disorder&oldid=197994"